Language Typology and Syntactic Description, Volume I: Clause Structure, Second edition
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Lgg Typology, Synt Description v. I - Clause structure
Parts-of-speech systems 13 As previously noted, and as further illustrated by (25), predicate nominals in Tagalog are not accompanied by a copula, and verbs occur freely as arguments. Thus, from a functional point of view, nouns and verbs appear to be at least as similar in Tagalog as they are in Nootka. (Tagalog does, however, make a more clearcut distinction in categorization: only verbs are inflectable for aspect.) Nonetheless, while languages may differ considerably in the extent to which they make a grammatical distinction between nouns and verbs, it seems correct to say that all languages do in fact make some distinction between them. One might, however, wish to say that in some languages, such as Nootka and Tagalog, nouns and verbs have enough in common grammatically for there to be some question about whether to regard them as two subclasses of a single part of speech rather than two distinct parts of speech. Since this seems to be essentially a matter of terminology, it need not concern us further. 1.3 Adjectives While all languages appear to distinguish two open classes, nouns and verbs, only certain languages make a further distinction between these and a third open class, the class of adjectives. The major question with which this section will be concerned is how adjectival meanings are expressed in languages that lack an open adjectival class. First, however, the properties of adjectives in those languages in which they do constitute a distinct open parts-of-speech class will be summarized. The traditional notional definition of adjectives identifies them as the class of words denoting qualities or attributes. This definition has some well-known shortcomings (see, for example, the discussions in Jespersen (1924) and Lyons (1977)), but no obviously better notional definition has been proposed. As a result, even in notionally based grammars, adjectives have usually been defined at least in part in functional terms, as words which modify nouns. Among the words which modify nouns, a distinction is sometimes made between limiting adjectives and descriptive adjectives. However, the so-called limiting adjectives (words such as some, this, other) never constitute an open class, and will not here be treated as adjectives at all (see section 2.2 for a discussion of such words). The present discussion is thus confined to descriptive adjectives. In addition to functioning as attributive modifiers of nouns (e.g. tall in the tall woman), adjectives may also function as predicates (as in The woman is tall). Like predicate nouns, predicate adjectives may or may not be accompanied by a copula. Thus English uses a copula while Ilocano does not: (26) Natayag daydyay babae tall top woman ‘The woman is tall’ 14 Paul Schachter and Timothy Shopen A category for which adjectives are often specified is degree, which includes the traditional distinctions positive, comparative, and superlative – for example English tall/taller/tallest; Ilocano natayag ‘tall’ / nataytayag ‘taller’ / katatayagan ‘tallest’ – as well as various others: for example very/too/so/rather tall. In some languages, adjectives are also marked to indicate the categoriza- tions of the nouns they modify or – when the adjectives are predicates – of the nouns that are their subjects. In Latin, for example, adjectives are marked for the case, gender, and number of nouns they modify (or are predicated of). Thus in (27) Feminae procerae homines proceros amant women tall men tall like ‘Tall women like tall men’ procerae is a nominative feminine plural form agreeing with feminae while proceros is an accusative masculine plural form agreeing with homines. To turn now to the question of how the notional equivalent of adjectives is expressed in languages which lack an open adjective class, a distinction can be made between two groups of such languages. First, there are languages in which there is a class that can be called adjectives, but in which this class is closed rather than open, with anywhere from less than ten members (e.g. Igbo, which has eight) to fifty-odd (e.g. Swahili). And second, there are languages which lack a distinct adjective class altogether. Let us consider each of these groups in turn. With regard to the first group, Dixon (1977b) has noted a rather striking cross- linguistic consistency in the range of meanings that the closed adjective class is used to express. Specifically, he finds that this class is likely to include words denoting dimensions (e.g. words meaning ‘large’ or ‘small’), colour, age, and value (e.g. words meaning ‘good’ or ‘bad’). On the other hand, it is less likely to include words denoting position (‘high’, ‘low’), physical property (‘hard’, ‘soft’), human propensity (‘kind’, ‘cruel’), or speed. A paradigm case in support of Dixon’s claim is offered by Igbo (see Welmers and Welmers (1969)), whose eight adjectives are neatly distributed among the four favoured semantic areas (see Table 1.1). Table 1.1 Igbo adjectives Dimension Colour Age Value ukwu ‘large’ ojii ‘black, dark’ o.hu.ru. ‘new’ o.ma ‘good’ nta ‘small’ o.ca ‘white, light’ ocye ‘old’ o.jo.o. ‘bad’ |
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