Language Typology and Syntactic Description, Volume I: Clause Structure, Second edition
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Lgg Typology, Synt Description v. I - Clause structure
Parts-of-speech systems 15 Dixon also suggests that there are some cross-linguistic tendencies, in lan- guages with closed adjective classes, for certain specific types of ‘adjectival’ meanings to be expressed by verbs and other specific types by nouns. He sug- gests, for example, that physical properties are more often expressed by verbs than by nouns, while human propensities are more often expressed by nouns than by verbs. This seems, however, to be only a statistical tendency, and counter- examples are not hard to find. Thus Hausa seems to prefer nouns to verbs for expressing adjectival meanings in general, while Bemba seems to prefer verbs to nouns (see examples (28–33) below), although each of these languages some- times uses the less favoured part of speech. In any event, it is clear that nouns and verbs between them must in general take up the slack left by a paucity of adjectives, and it is therefore of interest to see how each of these open classes is used to express adjectival meanings. To begin with nouns, languages with closed adjective classes often use abstract nouns (equivalent in many cases to English nouns formed with -ness: kindness, hardness, etc.) in possessive constructions to express adjectival mean- ings. The following are some examples from Hausa, showing the syntactic paral- lelism between constructions with adjectival meanings and other constructions involving possessive modifiers (28), and possessive predicates (29): (28) mutum mai alheri /arziki /hankali person having kindness /prosperity /intelligence ‘a kind/prosperous/intelligent person’ cf. mutum mai doki person having horse ‘a person having a horse’ (29) Yana da alheri /arziki /hankali he. is with kindness /prosperity /intelligence ‘He is kind/prosperous/intelligent’ cf. Yana da doki he. is with horse ‘He has a horse’ Some examples involving physical properties are: (30) itace mai tauri /laushi /nauyi wood having hardness /softness /heaviness ‘hard/soft/heavy wood’ (31) Yana da tauri /laushi /nauyi it. is with hardness /softness /heaviness ‘It is hard/soft/heavy’ 16 Paul Schachter and Timothy Shopen The expression of adjectival meanings through verbs in languages with closed adjective classes typically involves relativization to express the equivalent of a modifying adjective. The following examples from Bemba are representative: (32) umuuntu `uashipa /`uakosa /`uaceenjela person who. is. brave /who. is. strong /who. is. wise ‘a brave/strong/wise person’ cf. umuuntu `ualemba person who. is. writing ‘a person who is writing’ The equivalent of a predicate adjective, on the other hand, is expressed by a non-relativized verb: (33) Umuuntu ´aashipa /´aakosa /´aaceenjela person is. brave /is. strong /is. wise ‘The person is brave/strong/wise’ cf. Umuuntu ´aalemba person is. writing ‘The person is writing’ (As these examples indicate, relativized verbs in Bemba have low tone on the subject-concord prefix while non-relativized verbs have high tone on this prefix. In addition, with nouns in the human singular class – but not those in other classes – there is a segmental difference between the relative and non-relative subject prefixes.) A further point to be noted about languages with closed adjective classes is that, in some of these languages, adjectives occur only as attributive modifiers, and do not occur as predicates at all. One such language is Hua, as is shown by the following examples (from Haiman 1978): (34) a. Bura fu nupa fu baie that pig black pig is ‘That pig is a black pig’ b. *Bura fu nupa baie that pig black is To return to the question of how adjectival meanings are expressed in lan- guages that lack an open class of adjectives, let us now consider this question in relation to the second group of such languages: i.e., languages that have no distinct adjective class at all, either open or closed. Such languages can themselves be divided into two groups: languages in which adjectival mean- ings are expressed primarily by nouns (hereafter, adjectival-noun languages) and languages in which adjectival meanings are expressed primarily by verbs (hereafter, adjectival-verb languages). |
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