Language Typology and Syntactic Description, Volume I: Clause Structure, Second edition
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Lgg Typology, Synt Description v. I - Clause structure
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Imperative sentences Even a superficial glance at the strategies of imperative formation encountered across the world’s languages makes it clear that variation in this area is as least as extensive as in the case of interrogatives. It is certainly no exaggeration to say that most, if not all, languages have at least one strategy for identifying imperatives, i.e. constructions dedicated to the expression of directive speech acts, i.e. orders and requests, but also invitations, the giving of advice, warnings, wishes, instructions, etc. (W. D. Davies (1986:30ff.)): (59) a. Please clean the bath after use. b. Have some more cake. c. Take plenty of exercise if you want to slim. d. Watch out for the dog. e. Sleep well. f. Ring bell for service. In most studies, the label ‘imperative’ is reserved for sentence types expressing such speech acts when they are directed to addressees in the narrow sense of the word (second person). 15 Some authors extend this narrow definition to include commands, requests, etc., addressed to the first and sometimes even to the third person (Xrakovskij (2001)), i.e. to cases for which, traditionally, labels like ‘hortatives’, ‘optatives’, ‘jussives’ and the like would be used. In keeping with the traditional definition, we understand imperatives as sentences with an understood second person subject. The most widespread strategy for marking imperatives seems to be a special inflectional form of the verb so that the traditional Western approach of sub- suming the imperative under the category ‘mood’ appears justified even from a cross-linguistic perspective (van der Auwera and Lejeune (2005a, 2005b); van der Auwera, Dobrushina, and Goussev (2004)). This includes cases of gen- uine imperative affixes, but also the use of the bare verb stem and special verb stems, as well as morphological marking taken over from different domains, as, for example, subjunctive, aorist (perfect) and passive forms. A fairly general characteristic of inflecting languages is that morphological marking 15 A prototypical imperative implies a second person addressee. If there are further person distinc- tions made in the same paradigm they follow the following hierarchy (Aikhenvald (2003)): 2 > 1pl (inclusive) > 3sg/pl > 1sg and/or 1pl (exclusive). 304 Ekkehard K¨onig and Peter Siemund of the imperative is less extensive in comparison to other moods (indicative, subjunctive, etc.). Agreement affixes for person, number and gender, but also those indicating tense, aspect and the like, are frequently suppressed. How- ever, the picture is complicated by the fact that the kind of imperative strategy employed frequently depends on the polarity of the sentence. Many languages use one strategy in affirmative sentences, but resort to a totally different strategy in negative sentences (so-called ‘prohibitives’ or ‘vetatives’; van der Auwera and Lejeune (2005b)). What is also extremely common, if not universal, is the suppression of the subject (pronoun) in imperatives. Although many languages allow the optional use of a subject pronoun, mainly for contrastive purposes or to soften the force of the imperative (politeness / degree of formality), its absence clearly represents the unmarked case. These general patterns notwithstanding, the range of variation found in the domain of imperatives is quite extensive. We will give an overview in the following paragraphs, starting with what appear to be the most widespread strategies for positive and negative contexts. This will be followed by some brief remarks about more indirect means of expressing directive force as well as related constructions. Download 1.59 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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