Language Typology and Syntactic Description, Volume I: Clause Structure, Second edition
participant. In English, this contrast shows no overt morphosyntactic differ-
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Lgg Typology, Synt Description v. I - Clause structure
participant. In English, this contrast shows no overt morphosyntactic differ- ence (though there are more subtle, covert syntactic differences, see Bresnan (1994)); so a pronominal argument of verbs from either of these classes has the same form: I swam, I slipped. However, many languages of the world do have overt grammatical differences for these two classes. As with transitive verbs, the parameters which determine the choice of [ ±a] can vary across and within languages, so let’s look in greater detail at the types of variation found. Acehnese, as we have already seen, has strong restrictions on the selection of [ +a] nps for transitive verbs, namely the argument must be a volitional controlling initiator of the action, an agent. Exactly the same constraint applies to the choice of [ +a] for intransitive verbs: only performers of actions that can be construed as volitional can be [ +a] participants, which are realized with A typology of information packaging 381 the agentive proclitics. If the event is not volitionally accomplished, it is taken as happening to someone, to be an unaccusative verb with an associated [ −a] participant, which is expressed as a pronominal enclitic. An example of each type follows: (58) unergative verb: [ +a] unaccusative verb: [−a] geu-jak rh¨et-geuh 3sg[ +a]-walk fall-3sg[ −a] ‘He walks’ ‘He falls’ Durie (1987) Other examples of unergative and unaccusative verbs are: (59) unergative verbs unaccusative verbs ´ek ‘ascend’ rˆo ‘spill’ d¨ong ‘stand’ beureutˆoh ‘explode’ klik ‘cry’ trˆoh ‘happen, arrive’ hah ‘open mouth’ beukah ‘be broken’ marit ‘talk’ habˆeh ‘be finished’ kira ‘think’ ˆek ‘like’ car¨ong ‘be clever’ gli ‘be ticklish’ Durie (1985) Acehnese focusses on prototypical [ +a] parameters like volition and control and uses that as the basis of the split between unergative and unaccusative verbs. Other languages with a similar basis for the intransitive verb split are Caddo and Lakhota (both Mithun (1991)) and Tsova Tush (Holisky (1987)). It is also just as possible to select typical [ −a] parameters like change of state or affectedness as the basis of the split. Languages which make use of this parameter will contrast verbs which denote changes of state, or states with a significant or long-term (unaccusative) effect, from those which do not (unergative). Tolai of New Guinea (Mosel (1984)) reflects an unergative–unaccusative split along these lines: (60) (a) unergative [ +a] a tutana i vana art man 3sg go [ +a] ‘The man went’ (b) unaccusative [ −a] i ga kubur a lama 3sg rem grow art coconut [ −a] ‘The coconut grew’ 382 William A. Foley Tolai word order rules specify that [ +a] participants precede the verb, while [ −a]s follow, as (60) demonstrates. The same rule applies to transitive verbs (see example (48)) with word order [ +a] – v – [−a]). Other examples of unergative and unaccusative verbs in Tolai include: (61) unergative unaccusative momo ‘drink’ io ‘burn’ ruk ‘enter’ por ‘be finished’ rovoi ‘hunt’ dudu ‘sink’ peke ‘excrete’ kapa ‘be clear’ kikita ‘beat’ papala ‘be open’ This contrast between unergative and unaccusative as revolving around the notion of change of state rather than agentive control is closely correlated with a common effect of aspect on the semantic bases of the split. This is perhaps not too surprising; the close correlation between perfect or perfective aspect and resultant changes of state is well known (Comrie (1977)), as is the converse relation between imperfective aspect and activities and actions (DeLancey (1981)). An agent does an activity or carries out an action, the duration of which can be highlighted by imperfective aspect. A perfective or perfect aspect, on the other hand, indicates the completion of an event process and highlights how this event or process has brought about a resultant change of state on the affected participant. Therefore, we should not be surprised to find effects of aspect contrasts skewing the basis of the unergative–unaccusative split. This is the basis of the much discussed unergative–unaccusative contrast in Italian (Van Valin (1990)): (62) (a) imperfective: unergative with auxiliary avere ‘have’ Luisa ha corso nel parco per un’ ora pn has run in the park for an hour [ +a] ‘Luisa ran in the park for an hour’ (b) perfective: unaccusative with auxiliary essere ‘be’ Luisa `e corsa a casa in un’ ora pn be run to house in an hour [ −a] ‘Luisa ran home in an hour’ The unergative form with avere in (62a) is imperfective, highlighting the dura- tion of the event over a span of an hour; no completed end point is asserted. Conversely, the unaccusative with essere in (62b) is perfective; Luisa has arrived home after running there for an hour. Note that in these Italian examples the A typology of information packaging 383 semantic basis of the unergative–unaccusative split is extended well beyond its normal correlation between the contrast between [ +a] and [−a] respec- tively. By the usual semantic definitions, ‘What did X do?’ ‘What happened to X?’, Luisa in both (62a) and (b) is a [ +a] participant, because both sentences can answer the question ‘What did Luisa do?’ The contrast that seems to be expressed here is akin to a scale of prototypical, and perhaps most active, [ +a] status. The more actively involved [ +a] participant – i.e. the one still involved in the action in which he is the controlling causer, so the event is described in imperfective aspect – exhibits the diagnostic properties of the unergative con- struction, the one typically linked to [ +a] participants; while a less involved [ +a] participant – one which could be viewed to no longer be in control of the event because it is now finished, i.e. in perfective aspect – occurs in an unaccusative construction, the one prototypically linked to [ −a] participants. While such unaccusative [ +a] participants are not [−a]s, they are clearly seen as less potent [ +a] participants than unergative ones, and the language utilizes the unergative–unaccusative contrast to signal this subtle difference between types of [ +a] participants. Download 1.59 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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