participate in this survey.
Table 2.
Demographic characteristics of the respondents.
Items
Description
N
%
Cumulative %
Gender
Male
251
54.4
54.4
Female
210
45.6
100
Grade
Sophomore
134
29.1
29.1
Junior
202
43.8
72.9
Senior
125
27.1
100
Major
Arts
186
40.4
40.4
Science
275
59.4
100
Instead of using an exploratory factor analysis (EFA), the study conducted a confir-
mative factor analysis (CFA) to test the convergent validity of each construct, since most
of the items in each construct were adapted from mature and effective scales. To achieve
a satisfactory construct validity, the values of standardized loading estimated for all the
items should be higher than 0.7, while the composite reliability (CR) is recommended to be
higher than 0.7, and the average variance extracted (AVE) should be higher than 0.5 [
46
–
48
].
As is shown in Table
3
, the values for the standardized loading of all constructs were above
0.7, and AVE and CR were all higher than 0.5 and 0.7.
Next, the discriminant validity, which provides evidence of the external validity of
the measurement instrument, was assessed. It is determined by comparing the squared
correlation between two constructs and their AVE values. It is recommended that all of
the squared correlations should be less than the AVE values, which indicates sufficient
discriminant validity [
47
–
49
]. Table
4
presents the discriminant validity values for
the constructs.
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