Medieval and early modern periods 1206
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The Veerashaivas had initiated an important change, casting aside the concept of formal literature and making way for shorter local genres. The Vaishnava haridasas later popularised musical forms that were more acceptable to the common man. Written classics eulogising kings and commanders were a thing of the past. Kannada literature had moved closer to the spoken and sung folk traditions, with singability being its hallmark, and devotion to God its goal. This significant shift in the literary landscape was coupled with major political changes that were taking place in southern India in the early 14th century. With the decline of the regional Hindu kingdoms, the Vijayanagara Empire had risen as a bulwark against Muslim incursions from the north while creating an atmosphere conducive to development of the fine arts. In an important age of Kannada literature, competition between Vaishnava and Veerashaiva writers came to the fore. Literary disputations between the two sects were common, especially in the court of King Deva Raya II. Acute rivalry led to "organised processions" in honour of the classics written by poets of the respective sects. With the exception of the best-known writers from these faiths, many authors produced lesser quality writings with a sectarian and propagandist bent. The Vaishnava writers consisted of two groups who seemed to have no interaction with each other: the Brahmin commentators who typically wrote under the patronage of royalty; and the Bhakti (devotion) poets who played no role in courtly matters, instead taking the message of God to the people in the form of melodious songs composed using folk genres. Kumara Vyasa and Timmanna Kavi were well-known among the Brahmin commentators, while Purandara Dasa and Kanaka Dasa were the most famous of the Bhakti writers. The philosophy of Madhvacharya, which originated in the Kannada–speaking region in the 13th century, spread beyond its borders over the next two centuries. The itinerant haridasas, best described as mystic saint-poets, spread the philosophy of Madhvacharya in simple Kannada, winning mass appeal by preaching devotion to God and extolling the virtues of jnana (enlightenment), bhakti (devotion) and vairagya (detachment). This was the age of the shatpadi metre, although only the most skilled of poets, such as Chamarasa, Kumara Vyasa, Kanaka Dasa and Bhaskara used it to the best effect. Mentioned for the first time in Kannada literature by Nagavarma I in his Chhandombudhi (c. 990) and successfully used by the 12th century Hoysala poet Raghavanka, this hexa-metre style suited for narrative poetry found immense popularity throughout the Vijayanagara period. The shataka metre (string of 100 verses) was put to best use by the Veerashaivas who produced most of the didactic writings in this metre, although the Jain poet Ratnakaravarni is the most famous exponent of it. The writings of Ratnakaravarni and Kanaka Dasa in sangatya metre are considered masterpieces from this period. In the royal courts, there was increased interaction between Kannada and Telugu literatures, continuing a trend which had begun in the Hoysala period. Translations of classics from Kannada to Telugu and vice versa became popular. Well-known bilingual poets of this period were Bhima Kavi, Piduparti Somanatha and Nilakanthacharya. Some Telugu poets, including Dhurjati, were so well versed in Kannada that they freely used many Kannada terms in their Telugu writings. It was because of this "familiarity" with Kannada language that the notable 143 | P a g e
writer Srinatha called his Telugu writings "Kannada". Translations by bilingual writers continued in the centuries to follow. With the disintegration of the Vijayanagara Empire in the late 16th and early 17th centuries, the centres of Kannada literature moved to the courts of the emerging independent kingdoms, the Kingdom of Mysore and the Keladi Nayakas. Writers in these courts, many of whom were Veerashaiva by faith, were not only adept in Kannada but often also in Sanskrit and/or Telugu. Two such writers were Kalale Nanjaraja and Kempe Gowda, the founder of Bangalore. This multi-linguality was perhaps a lingering legacy of the cosmopolitan Vijayanagara literary culture and the emerging social responsibilities of the Veerashaiva monastic order which no longer confined itself to a Kannada only audience, but rather sought to spread its influence across southern India. In the Kingdom of Mysore, the Veerashaiva literary school was challenged by the growing influence of the Srivaishnava intelligentsia in the Wodeyar court. The Srivaishnava writers (followers of a sect of Vaishnavism) of Kannada literature were also in competition with Telugu and Sanskrit writers, their predominance continuing into the English colonial rule over the princely state of Mysore. Meanwhile, the radical writings of 16th-century poet Ratnakaravarni had made way for a new kind of poetry heralded by those who were not poets in the traditional courtly sense, rather itinerant poets who travelled across the Kannada-speaking region, cutting across court and monastery, writing poems (in the tripadi metre) and influencing the lives of people with their humanistic values which overcame the social barriers of caste and religion. Sarvajna (often compared to Telugu poet Vemana), Sisunala Sherif, Mupina Sadakshari, Navalingayogi and Kadakolada Madivalappa are the best-known among them. These maverick poets heralded yet another epoch of unconventional literature in Kannada language, free of courtly conservatism and established literary tastes.
Vaishnava authors wrote treatments of the Hindu epics, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the Bhagavata, as well as the Vedanta and other subjects from the Hindu puranic traditions. This was the age of Kumara Vyasa, an influential Vaishnava poet and a doyen of medieval Kannada epic poetry. Historians have drawn parallels between Adikavi Pampa (c. 941) and Kumaraya Vyasa, while identifying fundamental differences in their style. Both are considered masters of their respective periods; while Pampa is identified as a stylist of the classical age, Kumara Vyasa is considered a generalist of the medieval age. Unlike Pampa, a product of the marga (Sanskritic-mainstream) period of Kannada literature, Kumara Vyasa successfully wielded the flexibility of the desi (native) shatpadi metre, which used a range of language that included metaphors, similes, humour and even vulgarity. Kumara Vyasa wrote Gadugina Bharata in 1430 in the Vyasa tradition. The title of the work is a reference to Gadagu (modern Gadag), where the author lived. The writing is based on the first ten chapters of the Hindu epic Mahabharata and is also alternatively titled Karnata Bharata Kathamanjari or Kumaravyasa Bharata. It is a dedication to the deity of Gadag and emphasises the divinity and grace of the Hindu god Krishna. Unlike Pampa, who adhered to a strictly Jain interpretation of the epic in his Vikramarjuna Vijaya (941), eulogising Pandava
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Arjuna as the hero, making Draupadi solely Arjuna's wife and casting the Kaurava prince Duryodhana and his loyal companion Karna as lofty individuals, Kumara Vyasa portrays all characters with the exception of Krishna as deeply human with foibles. His depiction of the secondary characters, such as the cunning Keechaka and the coward Uttara Kumara, is also noteworthy. An interesting aspect of the work is the sense of humour exhibited by the poet and his hero, Krishna. This work marks the transition in Kannada literature from old to modern. Particularly known for his use of sophisticated metaphors, Kumara Vyasa earned the title Rupaka Samrajya Chakravarti ("Emperor of the land of Metaphors"). The remaining chapters of the epic were translated by Timmanna Kavi (1510) of the court of King Krishnadevaraya. The poet named his work Krishnaraya Bharata after his patron king. Airavata (1430) by Kumara Vyasa recounts an episode from the Mahabharata and is a story of the elephant ridden by god Indra. Inspired by Kumara Vyasa, the first complete brahminical adaptation of the epic Ramayana was written by Kumara Valmiki (a pseudonym of Narahari, 1500) and is called Torave Ramayana after the village Torave, where it was composed. As with the Mahabharata, this adaptation veers away from the Jain version by Nagachandra (1105). Nagachandra had used the champu metre popular in Sanskrit works and sought to portray Ravana as a tragic hero. In a departure from the original version (by Valmiki), the Jain epic ends with Rama's asceticism and nirvana. Kumara Valmiki's account, written in the Valmiki tradition, is in the shatpadi metre and is steeped in the author's devotion for the god Rama, an incarnation of the god Vishnu. According to the author, the epic he wrote was actually a recounting of Shiva's conversation with his consort Parvati. In this version of the epic, King Ravana, the villain, is one of the suitors at Sita's Swayamvara (lit a ceremony of "choice of a husband"). His failure in winning the bride's hand results in jealousy towards Rama, the eventual bridegroom. As the story progresses, Hanuman, for all his services, is heaped with encomium and is exalted to the status of "the next creator". At the end of the story, during the war with Rama, Ravana realises that Rama is none other than the god Vishnu and hastens to die at his hands to achieve salvation. The chapter narrating the war (Yuddhakanda) is given prominence over all other chapters. The writing has remained popular for centuries and inspired folk theatre such as the Yakshagana, which draws from episodes of Torave Ramayana for enactment. The influence of the Puranic tradition and that of Madhavacharya are visible in this lively yet religious narration that uses every opportunity to glorify its hero, Rama. However, the author has been criticised for dwelling in abstractions and for not reaching the graceful poetic level of his predecessor Kumara Vyasa. The early Bhagavata writings in Sanskrit by well-known acharyas (gurus) were solely meant to have a proselytising effect on the masses, encouraging them to a theistic way of life and belief in the god Krishna. Chatu Vitthalanatha, who flourished as a court poet of King Krishnadeva Raya and his successor King Achyuta Raya, was the first to translate the Bhagavata into Kannada in a voluminous writing comprising 12,247 stanzas divided into 280 sections. The work covered the entire original version in shatpadi metre. Two other names appear in the colophons, Sadananda Yati and Nityatma Sukayogi, prompting some scholars to attribute the work to the group while others consider them alternate names of the same writer. The work covers all ten avatars of the god Vishnu, though it is essentially centred on the depiction of Krishna as the supreme Lord. The purana covers stories of Vishnu's famous devotees such as Prahlad and Dhruva in detail, as well as stories of demons Vritasura, Hiranyakashipu and others who sought to attain salvation by dying at the hands of Vishnu. Most noteworthy is the epic's
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influence on the compositions of the Haridasas. Though the writing is not considered as important as the other two epics of the period, its significance to religiously minded people is well accepted. Chatu Vitthalanatha wrote a fuller version of portions of the epic Mahabharata as well. Other notable writers of the 16th century were Tirumala Bhatta (Siva Gite) and Ramendra (Saundarya Katharatna, using tripadi metre). Veerashaiva writings The Veerashaiva writers were devotees of the Hindu god Shiva, his 25 forms, and the expositions of Shaivism. An important development in their literature during this period was the recasting the saints of the 12th century Veerashaiva movement (Basavanna, Allama Prabhu and others) as the protagonists of their writings. Bhima Kavi paved the way for the shatpadi metre tradition in his work Basavapurana (c.1369), a form first experimented with by the 12th century Hoysala poet Raghavanka. Bhima Kavi's work, a biography of Basavanna, is an important Veerashaiva purana. It was inspired by earlier biographies of Basavanna by the Hoysala poet Harihara (the author of the first biographical narrative poem of the protagonist's life called Basavaraja Ragale) and the Telugu writings of Palkuriki Somanatha of the 13th century. Bhima Kavi humbly acknowledges and eulogises his predecessors in a writing full of well-known personalities. The author starts with Basavanna's birth and weaves episodes of other famous sharanas (devotees of Hindu god Shiva)—such as Allama Prabhu—into his life history. Basavanna is depicted as a saintly person, a great devotee of Shiva, an incarnation of Nandi, a man of miracles and one with a mission, sent to re-establish the Veerashaiva faith on earth. The work is arranged into eight aswasas (divisions) containing sixty-one sandhis (chapters) and 3,621 verses. The narration includes stories of devotees of Shiva who overcame their egos. Apart from a few variations, the writings of Bhima Kavi and his predecessors are complementary. Two lost works of Bhima Kavi are the Bhimakaviswara Ragale and the Bhringidandaka. Chamarasa, Lakkanna Dandesa and Jakkanarya flourished under the patronage of King Deva Raya II. Chamarasa, champion of the Veerashaiva faith, was a rival of Kumara Vyasa in the court of King Deva Raya II. His magnum opus, the Prabhulinga Lile (1430) was a eulogy of 12th-century saint Allama Prabhu; it was translated into Telugu and Tamil language at the behest of his patron king, and later into the Sanskrit and Marathi languages. In the story, the saint is considered an incarnation of Hindu god Ganapathi while Parvati took the form of a princess of Banavasi. In stark contrast to Kumara Vyasa's war-torn epic, Chamarasa delivered a writing full of spirituality. A remark made by the poet in the writing, that his story is "not about ordinary mortals", implied that the Vaishnava epics the Ramayana and the Mahabharata were about mortals; this was evidence of rivalry between the two faiths. Lakkanna Dandesa, the king's prime minister and provincial governor, wrote an encyclopaedia on the beliefs and rites of the Veerashaiva faith titled Sivatattva Chintamani. This work is an account of the life of Basavanna, the progenitor of the faith, and hundreds of his followers, making it valuable material for students of the Lingayat movement. Numerous references are made in this work to the capital city of Vijayanagara and its suburbs. Jakkanarya,
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a minister in the court, not only wrote Nurondusthala (one hundred and one stories) but also was patron to Kumarabanka Natha and Mahalinga Deva, poet-saints who wrote vachana poems and books on the Shaiva philosophy (called shatsthala). Other writers of the 15th century worthy of mention are Kavi Linga (1490), court poet of King Saluva Narasimha I, Adrisappa (Praudaraya Charitra), Bommarasa (Soundara Purana), Kallarasa (Janavasya), Chaturmukha Bommarasa (Revanasiddhesvara Purana), Suranga Kavi
(Trisashti Puratanara Charitre), and
Nilakanthacharya (Aradhya Charitra), court poet of the Ummattur chieftain Virananjendra. In 1500, inspired by Palkuriki Somanatha (a bilingual poet in Kannada and Telugu), Singiraja synthesised an account on the life of Basavanna titled Maha Basavaraja Charitra (or Singiraja Purana), using the protagonist's vachana poems and giving details of his 88 famous deeds, as well as information about his opponents in the court of Southern Kalachuri King Bijjala II.[50] An eminent poet of this time was Guru Basava, known for his authorship of seven famous poems (Sapta Kavya), all but one being written in the shatpadi metre. He expounded on religious teachings in the form of formal discussions between the guru and disciple. His kavyas (classical epic poems) deal with spiritualism and extrasensory perception. Mallanarya of Gubbi, a poet bilingual in Kannada and Sanskrit, enjoyed the patronage of King Krishnadeva Raya. His important writings in Kannada in the shatpadi metre are the Bhava Chintaratna (also called Satyendra Chole Kathe, 1513) and the Virasaivamrita Purana (1530). The former was based on a 7th-century Tamil work and about a Chola King in the context of the Shaiva faith; the latter is a writing of encyclopedic proportions that goes beyond philosophical content, describing the various forms (or sports, called lila) of god Shiva and the lives of famous Shaiva saints. In 1584, Virupaksha Pandita, the head priest at the Virupaksha Temple in Vijayanagara, wrote an account on the life and deeds of the 12th-century saint and vachana poet Chennabasava. The writing, titled Chenna Basava Purana, regards the protagonist as an incarnation of god Shiva and describes the glory of Shiva and his famous devotees. The book gives valuable information, including dates, about early Veerashaiva saints and vachanakaras (vachana poets). In addition to religious content, the writing provides useful insights about the former capital Vijayanagara, its royal palace, its market places and merchants, its military encampments, specialisations and divisions and the guilds of workers who served the military in various capacities. Other authors from the 16th century were Chermanka (Chermanka Kavya), Virabhadraraja (Virabhadra Vijaya), Chennabasavanka (Mahadevi Akkanna Purana), Nanjunda of Ikkeri (Bhairavaesvara Kavya) and Sadasiva Yogi (Ramanatha Vilasa).
The cultural supremacy of the Jains steadily diminished from the 12th century; the decline began in the 10th century after the conquest of the predominantly Jain Rashtrakutas by the Western Chalukya Empire, and the defeat of the Ganga kingdom by the Cholas of Tanjore. While Veerashaivism flourished in northern Karnataka from the time of Basavanna, Sri Vaishnavism (a branch of Vaishnavism) thrived in the South due to the influence of Ramanujacharya. The Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana and his descendants took to Vaishnavism. Though tolerant of all faiths, the founders of the Vijayanagara Empire and the succeeding kings 147 | P a g e
of the Sangama dynasty were Shaivas by faith (devotees of Shiva) while the later Tuluva dynasty kings were Sri Vaishnavas (followers of Sri Vaishnavism). The Jain population appears to have begun its decline from this period; however, available records include a decree by King Bukka Raya I giving Jains freedom of worship, following their complaint of persecution. Although the influence of Jainism and its literature was on the wane, the coastal areas of modern Karnataka, where important Jain monuments and monoliths were constructed, remained a stronghold. As in earlier centuries, Jain authors wrote about tirthankars, princes and other personages important to the Jain religion. Most famous among Jain poets from the coastal Karnataka region were Ratnakaravarni, Abhinava Vadi Vidyananda, Salva and Nemanna. Ratnakaravarni of Mudabidri (1557), court poet at Karkala under the patronage of Bhairasa Wodeyar, is famous for successfully integrating an element of worldly pleasure into asceticism and for treating the topic of eros with discretion in a religious epic, his magnum opus the Bharatadesa Vaibhava. One of the most popular poets of Kannada literature, Ratnakaravarni's writings were popular across religions and sects. He appears to have had tense relationships with both court and monastery, however, owing to writings on erotics and the science of pleasure, rather than purely spiritual poetry. A radical and sensitive poet, he once claimed that spiritual meditation "was boring". Tradition has it that Ratnakaravarni converted to Veerashaivism when his Bharatadesa Vaibhava (also called Bharatesvara Charite) was initially scorned, later to return to the Jain fold and pen other important writings. The Bharatadesa Vaibhava is written in eighty cantos and includes 10,000 verses. His other important writings include the 2,000 spiritual songs called Annagalapada ("Songs of the Brothers") and the three shatakas: the Ratnakara sataka, the Aparajitesvara shataka (a discourse on Jain morals, renunciation and philosophy) and the Trilokya shataka, an account of the universe as seen by Jains, consisting of heaven, hell and the intermediate worlds. Bharatadesa Vaibhava is a version of the earlier Poorvapurana by Jinasenacharya and reflects a different perspective than the Adipurana written by Adikavi Pampa c. 941. Centred on the glorification of the enlightened Bharata, the son of the first Jain tirthankar Adinatha, Ratnakaravarni cleverly focuses on those aspects that the original by Pampa ignored. Ratnakaravarni goes into minute detail about prince Bharata who, according to the author, serves as the ideal balance between detachment (yoga) and attachment (bhoga). Though married to "96,000 women", Bharata is depicted as one who at once could separate himself from worldly pleasures. Unlike Pampa, who focused on the conflict between the brothers Bahubali and Bharata, ending with Bahubali's asceticism and Bharata's humiliation, Ratnakaravarni's eulogy of Bharata leaves room only for Bahubali's evolution towards sainthood. Eventually, Bharata attains moksha (liberation from the cycle of death and rebirth) by burning himself in ascetic fire. The author showers encomium on Bharata in his various roles as monarch, husband, son, friend and devotee, a rare description of a "perfect human being" among Jain writings. Since details of the early life of Bharata as a young ruler did not exist in previous writings or in tradition, much of Ratnakaravarni's vivid description of that period was a product of his imagination. This work finds its pride of place in Kannada's epic poetry as the longest poem in the folk sangatya metre. Salva (1550), who was the court poet of a Konkan prince named Salvamalla, wrote a propagandist work called the Salva Bharata. This was a Jain version of the epic Mahabharata in sixteen parvas (divisions), intended to compete with the Vaishnava version of the epic written by |
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