Minds and Computers : An Introduction to the Philosophy of Artificial Intelligence
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validity
a property of logical forms of inference, such that the truth of the premises guarantees the truth of the conclusion – valid infer- ences admit of no counter-examples. wetware refers to the brain in its capacity as information processing hardware. 217 absent qualia see zombies activation, 188, 190 activation function, 188–9, 200 adicity, 77 algorithms see effective procedures allophones, 170–1 ambiguity lexical, 153 syntactic see amphiboly amphiboly, 153 amygdala, 30 anomalous monism see property dualism antecedent (of conditional), 134 arcuate fasciculus, 32 Armstrong, D., 36 artificial intelligence, 100 artificial neural networks, 187–201 training see backpropagation Australian materialism, 35, 37–42 axon, 33 backpropagation, 197–8 basal ganglia, 30 begging the question, 39, 50–1 behavioural conditioning see conditioning behaviourism analytical see philosophical methodological see psychological philosophical, 23–6, 35, 45 psychological, 20–2 branching factor, 114 Broca, P., 31 Broca’s aphasia, 31 Broca’s area, 31 carburettor, 44–5 Cartesian dualism see dualism categorial reasoning, 158 causal closure, 11 causal theory (of mind), 35–7, 38, 45 central state materialism see Australian materialism cerebellum, 28 Chalmers, D., 203 chess, 53–6, 104, 128–31 Chinese room, 176–9 Chomsky, N., 149, 164 Church, A., 87 Church/Turing thesis, 87–8, 93, 200 cognitive architecture, 185–6; see also artificial neural networks compositionality, 182 computability, 77–8, 87–8, 200 computation, 75–8, 95 computationalism, 95–108 computer, 93 Comte, A., 20 218 INDEX conditionality, 134 conditioning operant, 21–2 Pavlovian, 20, 2 conduction aphasia, 32 conjunction, 136 conjuncts, 137 connectionism, 185–6; see also artificial neural networks consciousness, 202–3 consequent (of conditional), 134 content, 102–3, 175; see also semantics context sensitivity, 191–6 corpus callosum, 30 corvée, 1 counterexamples, 156, 160 creativity, 106–8 cross-lateralisation, 30–1 Cyc/Cycorp, 144 decidability, 86 decision problem see decidability deduction, 133–7 dendrites, 33 derivation, 62–4, 66, 67 Descartes, R., 5, 29 diphthongs see sonorants dispositions, 23–6 distributed representation see representation dopamine, 28 double aspect theory see property dualism dualism Cartesian, 5–12 epiphenomenalism, 13–14 interactionist see Cartesian occasionalism, 13 parallelism, 12–13 property, 14 substance, 4–5 Ebbinghaus, H., 18, 19 effective procedures, 53–7, 64, 67, 71–3, 76, 86–8, 97, 200 embodiment, 179–80, 206 emotion, 30, 205–6 endocrine glands, 29 entailment see logical consequence Entscheidungsproblem see decision problem epiphenomena, 14 epiphenomenalism see dualism essential properties, 8–9 exclusive disjunction, 190 expert systems, 137–44 exponentiation, 89 Fechner, G., 16 –17 Fibonacci sequence, 84 formal systems, 57–69, 71–2, 88, 95, 102 frontal lobe, 31 function (mathematical) see total/partial functions functionalism, 44–51, 95, 101 gambler’s fallacy, 158 generation, 61–2 generation trees, 64–7 generative grammar see grammar ghost in the machine, 23, 26 God, 12–13 Gödel, K., 88 Gödel coding, 88–94 grammar generative, 149–52 phrase structure, 150 halting problem, 76, 85, 86 Helmholtz, H., 16–17 heuristic function, 117, 125–6, 128 219 heuristic search best first, 120–1 hill climbing, 118–20 hippocampus, 30 homonyms, 148 homophones, 148 Huntington’s chorea, 30 hypothalamus, 29 identity see personal identity identity theory (of mind) see Australian materialism imitation game see Turing Test imitation man see zombies induction, 133 intentionality, 181–2, 203 interactionist dualism see dualism introspection, 7, 17–20, 38–9 inverted spectrum, 48–9 irrationality see rationality isomorphism, 68, 102–3, 104 Jackson, F., 43 Johnson-Laird, P., 161 Kahneman, D., 161 Külpe, O., 18–19 lateral geniculate nucleus, 29 learning algorithms, 105–6 Leibniz’ Law, 39 limbic system, 30 linguistic capacity, 109 Loebner Prize, 111 logic gates, 189–91, 200 logic/logics, 132–3 logical consequence, 132; see also validity logical form, 135–6 Mach, E., 20 materialism Australian see Australian materialism central state see Australian materialism reductive see Australian materialism meaning see semantics medial geniculate nucleus, 29 melatonin, 29 memory, 18, 30, 203 mental models, 160–1 mental representation see representation minimax, 125–6 modus ponens, 134 modus tollens, 157 monophthongs see sonorants multiple realisability, 40–1, 101 MYCIN, 143 myelin, 33 neural bioengineering, 200–1 neural plasticity, 32, 41 neurons, 32–4 neurotransmitters, 28, 29, 200, 205 obstruents, 165–7; see also phonemes occasionalism see dualism occipital lobe, 32 Ockham’s razor, 10–11, 24, 38 olfactory bulbs, 29–30 ontology, 4 operant conditioning see conditioning operating system, 104–5 overextension (semantic), 172 oxytocin, 29 paradigms see stereotypes parallelism see dualism 220 parietal lobe, 31 Parkinson’s disease, 28, 30 pattern extraction, 131, 163, 198–9 Pavlov, I., 20 Pavlovian conditioning see conditioning personal identity, 203–5 petitio principii see begging the question phonemes, 146, 165–73 phonetic properties, 145; see also phonetic realisation rules phonetic realisation rules, 170–2 phonological simplification, 173 phonology, 164–73 phrase structure grammar see grammar phrase structure trees, 150–2; see also generation trees pineal gland, 29 pituitary gland, 29 Place, U. T., 36, 37 pons, 27–8 positivism, 20, 22 predicates see predication predication, 134–7 preordained harmony see parallelism primary auditory cortex, 31 primary motor cortex, 31 primary sensory strip, 31 primary visual cortex, 32 prime numbers, 89 productivity (of language), 149 program, 71–5, 79–84, 90–3, 96 proof see deduction, derivation, induction property dualism see dualism pruning, 127–8 psychology behaviourist, 20–2 history of, 15–22 introspectionist, 17–20 physiological, 16–17 qualia, 42–3, 48–51, 203 rationality, 162–3 Rayner, R., 21 recursive definition, 59 reductive materialism see Australian materialism reflex arcs, 20–1 register machines, 70–6, 78–84, 86–7, 88, 89–93, 96 relations symmetrical, 137 transitive, 136 representation, 180, 181–5 distributed, 184–5 symbolic, 183–4 robots, 1 Ryle, G., 23 satisfaction, 135, 137 search (blind) bottom up, 114, 142–3 breadth first, 115, 117 depth first, 116–17 heuristic see heuristic search top down, 113–14 Searle, J., 176 semantics, 146–8, 175–80 Skinner, B. F., 21–2 Smart, J. J. C., 36, 37 soma, 33 somatosensory cortex see primary sensory strip sonorants, 167–70; see also phonemes soul, 6 species chauvinism, 41, 47 speech synthesis, 191–6, 199 squaring, 81–3; see also exponentiation 221 stereotypes, 158, 159; see also mental models stimulus-response, 17 straw man, 94 string concatenation, 58–9 string variables, 58 substance dualism see dualism substantia nigra, 28 substrate independence, 47, 101 symbolic representation see representation symmetrical relation see relations synapse, 33 synaptic cleft, 33 synaptic vesicles, 33 syntax, 147–9, 175–9; see also grammar temporal lobe, 31–2 thalamus, 28–9, 30 thermodynamics, 11 token identity theory (of mind) see token physicalism token physicalism, 41–2, 46–7, 101 topological organisation, 31 total/partial functions, 77 transduction, 33 transfer function, 188–9, 200 transitive relation see relations Turing, A., 86, 109–10 Turing machines, 86–7; see also register machines Turing Test, 109–11 Tversky, A., 161 type/token identity, 46 underextension (semantic),172–3 universal machines, 92–3, 96–7, 98 validity, 99, 156, 157 vowels, cardinal, 168; see also sonorants Watson, J., 20–1 Wernicke, K., 32 Wernicke’s aphasia, 32 Wernicke’s area, 31–2 wetware, 99, 101 Wizard Of Oz, The, 148 Wundt, W., 17–19 zombies, 50–1 222 Download 1.05 Mb. 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