Most human languages are transmitted by sounds and one of the most obvious differences between languages is that they sound di

Suggested further reading 
Good general introductions to linguistics include: Akmajian et al. (2001), Crowley et al. 
(1995), Fromkin et al. (2000) and Hudson (2000). For more in-depth treatments of 
individual areas see: Ladefoged (2000, 2001) for phonetics, Spencer (1995) and 
Gussenhoven & Jacobs (1998) for phonology, Matthews (1991) and Spencer (1991) for 
morphology, Thomas (1993) and Carnie (2002) for syntax, Goddard (1998) and Lyons 
(1995) for semantics. Good introductory readings on the linguistics of English include 
Carr (1999) for phonetics and phonology, Börjars and Burridge (2001) for syntax and 
Kreidler(1998) for semantics. 
References 
Akmajian, Adrian, Richard A. Demers, Ann K. Farmer, and Robert M. Harnish (2001). 
Linguistics: An Introduction to Language and Communication, 5th ed. 
Cambridge: MIT Press. 
Blevins, J. (1995). The syllable in phonological theory. In J. A. Goldsmith (Ed.). 
Handbook of phonological theory (pp. 206-244). Cambridge, MA: Blackwell. 
Börjars, K., & Burridge, K. (2001). Introducing English grammar. London: Arnold. 
Bresnan, J. (2001). Lexical-functional syntax. Oxford: Blackwell. 
Brinton L. (2000). The structure of modern English. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Carnie, A. (2002). Syntax. Oxford: Blackwell. 

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49 
Carr, P. (1999). English Phonetics and Phonology. Oxford, Blackwell 
Chafe, W. L. (1970). Meaning and the structure of language. Chicago: University of 
Chicago Press. 
Comrie, B. (1979). Russian. In T. Shopen (Ed.). Languages and their status (pp. 91-207). 
Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. 
Crowley, T., Lynch, J., Siegel, J., & Piau, J. (1995). The design of language: An 
introduction to descriptive linguistics. Auckland: Longman Paul. 
Cruttenden, A. (1997). Intonation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 
Davies, A. (1999). An Introduction to Applied Linguistics: From Practice to Theory. 
Edinburgh: The Edinburgh University Press. 
Fromkin, V. A. et al. (2000). Linguistics: An Introduction to Linguistic Theory. Oxford, 
Blackwell 
Goddard, C. (1998). Semantic analysis: A practical introduction. Oxford: Oxford 
University Press. 
Goldberg, A. E. (1995). Constructions: A Construction Grammar approach to argument 
structure. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 
Gussenhoven, C. and H. Jacobs (1998). Understanding Phonology. Arnold. 
Haegeman, L. (1994). Introduction to Government and Binding Theory (2nd edition). 
Oxford: Blackwell. 
Haiman, J. (1980). Dictionaries and encyclopedias. Lingua, 50, 329-357. 
Hudson, G. (2000). Essential Introductory Linguistics London: Blackwell. 
Jackendoff, R. (1983). Semantics and cognition. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. 

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50 
Kennedy, C., & Miceli, T. (2001). An evaluation of intermediate students’ approaches to 
corpus investigation. Language Learning and Technology, 5(3), 77-90. 
Kreidler, C.W. (1998). Introducing English Semantics, London: Routledge. 
Ladefoged, P. (2000). A Course in Phonetics. 4th Edition. Fort Worth, Harcourt College 
Publishers 
Ladefoged, P. (2001). Vowels and Consonants. An Introduction to the Sounds of 
Language. Oxford, Blackwell 
Lakoff, G. (1987). Women, fire, and dangerous things: What categories reveal about the 
mind. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 
Lambrecht, K. (1994). Information structure and sentence form: Topic, focus and mental