At the other extreme was the humble, economical Volkswagen —literally, "people's car"—designed by engineer Ferdinand Porsche. World War II delayed its production, but it became a runaway worldwide hit in the 1950s and 1960s, eventually eclipsing the Model T's record of 15 million vehicles sold. Japan, a leader in the development of fuel-efficient engines and an enthusiastic subscriber to advanced manufacturing techniques, also became a major global player, the biggest in the world by 1980. The automobile's crucial role in shaping the modern world is apparent everywhere. During the 19th century, suburbs tended to grow in a radial pattern dictated by trolley lines; the car has allowed them to spring up anywhere within commuting distance of the workplace—frequently another suburb. Malls, factories, schools, fast-food restaurants, gas stations, motels, and a thousand other sorts of waystops and destinations have spread out across the land with the ever-expanding road network. Taxis, synchronized traffic lights, and parking lots sustain modern cities. Today's version of daily life would be unthinkable without the personal mobility afforded by wheels and the internal combustion engine.
The automobile remains an engineering work in progress, with action on many fronts, much of it prompted by government regulation and societal pressures. Concerns about safety have put seatbelts and airbags in cars, led to computerized braking systems, and fostered interest in devices that can enhance night vision or warn of impending collisions. Onboard microprocessors reduce polluting emissions and maximize fuel efficiency by controlling the fuel-air ratio. New materials—improved steels, aluminum, plastics, and composites—save weight and may add structural strength. The automobile remains an engineering work in progress, with action on many fronts, much of it prompted by government regulation and societal pressures. Concerns about safety have put seatbelts and airbags in cars, led to computerized braking systems, and fostered interest in devices that can enhance night vision or warn of impending collisions. Onboard microprocessors reduce polluting emissions and maximize fuel efficiency by controlling the fuel-air ratio. New materials—improved steels, aluminum, plastics, and composites—save weight and may add structural strength. As for the motive power, engineers are working hard on designs that complement or may someday even supplant the internal combustion engine. One avenue of research involves electric motors whose power is generated by fuel cells that draw electrical energy from an abundant substance such as hydrogen. Unlike all-electric cars, hybrids don't have to be plugged in to be recharged; instead, their battery is charged by either the gasoline engine or the electric motor acting as a generator when the car slows. Manufacturing has seen an ongoing revolution that would dazzle even Henry Ford, with computers greatly shortening the time needed to design and test a car, and regiments of industrial robots doing machining and assembly work with a degree of speed, strength, precision, and endurance that no human can match.
1901The telescope shock absorber developed (C. L. Horock designs the "telescope" shock absorber, using a piston and cylinder fitted inside a metal sleeve, with a one-way valve built into the piston. As air or oil moves through the valve into the cylinder, the piston moves freely in one direction but is resisted in the other direction by the air or oil. The result is a smoother ride and less lingering bounce. The telescope shock absorber is still used today.) 1901The telescope shock absorber developed (C. L. Horock designs the "telescope" shock absorber, using a piston and cylinder fitted inside a metal sleeve, with a one-way valve built into the piston. As air or oil moves through the valve into the cylinder, the piston moves freely in one direction but is resisted in the other direction by the air or oil. The result is a smoother ride and less lingering bounce. The telescope shock absorber is still used today.)1901 Olds automobile factory starts production (The Olds automobile factory starts production in Detroit. Ransom E. Olds contracts with outside companies for parts, thus helping to originate mass production techniques. Olds produces 425 cars in its first year of operation, introducing the three-horsepower "curved-dash" Oldsmobile at $650. Olds is selling 5,000 units a year by 1905.)1902 Standard drum brakes are invented (Standard drum brakes are invented by Louis Renault. His brakes work by using a cam to force apart two hinged shoes. Drum brakes are improved in many ways over the years, but the basic principle remains in cars for the entire 20th century; even with the advent of disk brakes in the 1970s, drum brakes remain the standard for rear wheels.1908 William Durant forms General Motors (William Durant forms General Motors. His combination of car producers and auto parts makers eventually becomes the largest corporation in the world.1908 Model T introduced (Henry Ford begins making the Model T. First-year production is 10,660 cars. ( (Cadillac is awarded the Dewar Trophy by Britain’s Royal Automobile Club for a demonstration of the precision and interchangeability of the parts from which the car is assembled. Mass production thus makes more headway in the industry.
1911 Electric starter introduced (Charles Kettering introduces the electric starter. Until this time engines had to be started by hand cranking. Critics believed no one could make an electric starter small enough to fit under a car’s hood yet powerful enough to start the engine. His starters first saw service in 1912 Cadillacs.
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