O’ganilayotgan til nazariy aspektlari (nazariy grammatika, leksikologiya, stilistika)
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O’ganilayotgan til nazariy aspektlari (nazariy grammatika, leksikologiya, stilistika) fanidan davlat attestatsiya sinovlarining asosiy savollari 1General overview to stylistics. Stylistics, a branch of applied linguistics, is the study and interpretation of texts of all types and/or spoken language in regard to their linguistic and tonal style, where style is the particular variety of language used by different individuals and/or in different situations or settings. For example, the vernacular, or everyday language may be used among casual friends, whereas more formal language, with respect to grammar, pronunciation or accent, and lexicon or choice of words, is often used in a cover letter and résumé and while speaking during a job interview. Stylistics as a conceptual discipline may attempt to establish principles capable of explaining particular choices made by individuals and social groups in their use of language, such as in the literary production and reception of genre, the study of folk art, in the study of spoken dialects and registers, and can be applied to areas such as discourse analysis as well as literary criticism. Plain language has different features. Common stylistic features are using dialogue, regional accents and individual idioms (or idiolects). Stylistically, also sentence length prevalence and language register use. 2.The Development of the English Literary Language. Literature written in the English language includes many countries such as the United Kingdom and its crown dependencies, Republic of Ireland, the United States, and the countries of the former British Empire. The English language has developed over the course of more than 1,400 years.The earliest forms of English, a set of Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon invaders in the fifth century, are called Old English. Beowulf is the most famous work in Old English, and has achieved national epic status in England, despite being set in Scandinavia. However, following the Norman conquest of England in 1066, the written form of the Anglo-Saxon language became less common. Under the influence of the new aristocracy, French became the standard language of courts, parliament, and polite society.The English spoken after the Normans came is known as Middle English. This form of English lasted until the 1470s, when the Chancery Standard (late Middle English), a London-based form of English, became widespread. Geoffrey Chaucer (1343 – 1400), author of The Canterbury Tales, was a significant figure in the development of the legitimacy of vernacular Middle English at a time when the dominant literary languages in England were still French and Latin. The invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in 1439 also helped to standardise the language, as did the King James Bible (1611),and the Great Vowel Shift. Poet and playwright William Shakespeare (1564 – 1616) is widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and one of the world's greatest dramatists.His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright. In the nineteenth century Sir Walter Scott's historical romances inspired a generation of painters, composers, and writers throughout Europe The English language spread throughout the world with the development of the British Empire between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire in history. By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23% of the world population at the time,During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries these colonies and the USA started to produce their own significant literary traditions in English. Cumulatively, over the period of 1907 to the present, numerous writers from Great Britain, both the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland, the US, and former British colonies have received the Nobel Prize for works in the English language, more than in any other language. 3.Stylistic classification of the English vocabulary. The classification of the English vocabulary is discussed for purely stylistic purposes. Some stylistic devices are based on the interplay of different stylistic aspects of words. The word- stock of any language is a system, the elements of which are interconnected, interrelated and yet independent. The word stock of the English language is divided into 3 mail layers: the literary, the neutral, and the colloquial. The literary and the colloquial contain a number of subgroups within the layer. This common property with units the different groups of words within the layer may be called its aspect. The aspect of the literary layer is its markedly bookish character. This makes the layer more or less stable. The aspect of the colloquial layer is its lively spoken character. This makes its unstable, fleeting. The aspect of the neutral layer is its universal character. That means it is unrestricted in its use. It can be used in all styles of language and in all spheres of human activity. This makes the layer the most stable of all. The colloquial layer of words is frequently limited to a defined language community or can find special locality where it circulates. The literary layer of words consist of groups excepted as legitimate members of the English vocabulary. They have no local or dialect character. The literary vocabulary consist of the following groups of words: 1. common literary words 2. terms and learned words 3. poetic words 4. archaic words 5. barbarisms and foreign words 6. lit. coinages including nonce-words The colloquial includes the following groups of words: common colloquial words slang, jargonizes professional words dialectal words vulgar words colloquial coinages (неологизмы) The common literary, neutral and common colloquial words are called standard English vocabulary. Other groups in the literary layer are regarded as special literary vocabulary and in the colloquial are regarded as special colloquial vocabulary. Neutral words which form the bulk of the English vocabulary are used in both literary and colloquial language. Neutral words are the main source of synonymy and polysemy. 4.Literary layer. From stylistic point of view, it is important to classify the English vocabulary, as many stylistic devices are based on the interplay of different stylistic aspects of words. According to Galperin, the vocabulary of the English language can be divided into three main layers: 1. the literary layer 2. the neutral layer 3. the colloquial layer The literary and neutral layers contain a number of sub-groups each of which has a property it shares with all the sub-groups within the layer – this common property is called aspect. The aspect of literary layer is its markedly bookish character. This layer is more or less stable. The aspect of the colloquial layer is its lively spoken character – it makes this layer unstable and fleeting. The aspect of the neutral layer is its universal character - it is unrestricted in its use, - it can be employed in all styles of language, - it can be employed in all spheres of human activity, - it is the most stable layer. 5.Stylistic classification of the English vocabulary. Stylistic Classification of the English Vocabulary The word-stock of a language can be represented as a system in which different aspects of words are singled out as interdependent. For our purposes it is important to classify words from the stylistic point of view. In accordance with the sphere of their usage English words can be divided into 3 main layers: literary, neutral and colloquial. The literary and colloquial layers contain a number of sub-groups. Each of these groups has an aspect (a property, a common feature) it shares with all the subgroups within the layer. The common property of the literary layer is its markedly bookish character, which makes the layer more or less stable. The common property of the colloquial layer of words is its lively spoken character, which makes it unstable, fleeting. The aspect of the neutral layer is its universal character, which means that words belonging to this layer are not restricted in use and can be employed in all styles and all spheres of human communication, which makes this layer the most stable of all. The literary layer includes words that are universally accepted, words that have no local or dialectal character. The literary vocabulary consists of the following groups of words: common literary terms and learned words poetic archaic barbarisms and foreign words literary coinages (including nonce-words) The colloquial layer of words is often limited to a definite language community (e.g. professional group) or confined to a special locality where it is spoken. The colloquial vocabulary falls into: common colloquial slang jargonisms professionalisms dialectal vulgar The common literary, neutral and common colloquial words are grouped under the term “Standard English Vocabulary”. Other groups in the literary layer are regarded as special literary vocabulary and those in the colloquial layer - special colloquial (non-literary) vocabulary. Neutral, Common Literary and Common Colloquial Vocabulary Neutral words, which form the bulk of the English Vocabulary, are used both in literary and colloquial language. They are the main source of synonymy and polysemy. It is the neutral stock of words that is so prolific in the production of new meanings. Unlike literary and colloquial words, neutral words lack special stylistic colouring. Common literary words are chiefly used in writing and polished speech. It may seem difficult to distinguish a literary word from a colloquial word as no objective criteria of classification have been worked out. The opposition between literary, colloquial and neutral can become more apparent in pairs/ groups of synonyms. O‘rganilayotgan til nazariy aspektlari (6-30-savollarga javoblar) 6. Colloquial layer. The word is derived from the Latin “colloquium,” which means “conversation.” With repeated use, certain words and expressions take on colloquial meanings: for example, the word “wicked” means “evil”—but it can also mean “excellent.” For example, “the film was wicked.” /The literary and the colloquial layers contain a number of sub-groups. The common property, which unites the different groups of words within the layer, may be called its aspect. The aspect of the literary layer is its markedly bookish character. It is the one that makes this layer more or less stable. The aspect of the colloquial layer is its lively spoken character. It is this that makes it unstable, fleeting. The aspect of the neutral layer is its universal character. This layer is the most stable of all, because it is unrestricted in use, it can be employed in all styles of language and in all spheres of human activity. / infant (bookish) - child (neutral) - kid (colloquial); parent (bookish) - father (neutral) - daddy (colloquial). /Colloquial words are always more emotionally colloured than literary ones. The neutral stratum of words has no degree of emotiveness. Boths literary and colloquial words have their upper and lower ranges. The lower range of literary words approaches the neutral layer and the same can be said of the upper range of the colloquial layer so it can very easily pass into the neutral layer. The difference in the stylistic aspect of words may colour the whole of an utterance. In the example from the “Fanny´s Frist Play“ (Shaw), the difference between the common literary and common colloquial vocabulary is clearly seen: Ex. 1: G.B. Shaw DORA: Oh, I´ve let it out. Have I? But he´s the right sort: I can see that. You won´t let it out downstairs, old man, will you? JUGGINS: The family can rely on my absolute discretion. Commentary: The Words in Juggin´s answer are on the borderline between common literary and neutral X words used by Dora are clearly common colloquial, not bordering on neutral. Ex 2: from David Copperfield (Dickens) ilustrates the use of literary English words which do not border on neutral: “My love,“ said Mr. Micawber, much affected, “you will forgive, and our old and tired friend Copperfield will, I am sure, forgive the momentary laceration – in other words, with a ribald Turncock attached to the waterworks – and will pity, not condemn, its excesses. Common Colloquial Vocabulary is represented as overlapping into the standard English vocabulary and is therefore considered part of it. It borders both on the neutral vocabulary and on the special colloquial vocabulary. 7.Phonetic expressive means and stylistic devices. Stylistic phonetics studies a sound arrangement or stress or intonation which impart the utterance additional shades of meaning. Phonetic expressive means are: alliteration, onomatopoeia, euphony, rhythm, rhyme. Alliteration is a phonetic stylistic device which aims at imparting a meloding effect to the utterance. Alliteration is the repetition of similar sounds of particular consonant sounds in close succession mostly at the beginning of successive words: The possessive instinct never stands still. [s] Secret and self-contained and solitary as an oyster. (Ch. Dickens.) [s] Through florescence and feud, frosts and fires it follows the laws of progression. [f] Alliteration is a musical accompaniment of the author’s idea supporting it with some vague emotional atmosphere which the reader interprets for himself. Alliteration heightens the general aesthetic effect of the utterance. Alliteration has shown remarkable continuity as a structural device of old English poems and folklore in general. Onomatopoeia – a sound imitation. It’s a combination of speech sounds which aims at imitating sounds produced in nature (wind, sea, thunder), by things (machines or tools), by people (sighing, singing) and by animals. There are two varieties of onomatopoeia: direct and indirect. Euphony consists in a pleasing agreeable arrangement of sounds which is in harmony with the general tonality of the text and usually produces an artistic impression: a poem “Those evening bells” by T.More is a bright example of it: Those evening bells! Those evening bells! How many a tale their music tells, Of youth, and home, and those sweet time, When last I heard their soothing chime. Rhythm in linguistics may be defined as a deliberate arrangement of speech into regularly recurring units intending to be grasped as a definite periodicity. Rhythm is a main factor which brings order into the utterance. Rhyme is the repetition of identical or similar terminal sound combination of words. Rhyming words are generally placed at a regular distance from each other. In verses they are usually placed at the end of the corresponding lines. Full rhymes: Might - Right Incomplete rhymes: worth - forth Eye - rhyme: love – prove. 8.Lexical expressive means and stylistic devices. Words in a context may acquire additional lexical meanings not fixed in the dictionaries, what we call contextual meanings. The latter may sometimes deviate from the dictionary meaning to such a degree that the new meaning even becomes the opposite of the primary meaning. It is the interrelation between two types of lexical meaning: dictionary and contextual. The transferred meaning of a word may be fixed in dictionaries as a result of long and frequent use of the word other than in its primary meaning. In this case we register a derivative meaning of the word. When we perceive two meanings of the word simultaneously, we deal with a stylistic device in which the two meanings interact. Classification of Lexical Stylistic Devices (SD) SD are usually classified into: 1. SD based on the interaction of different types of lexical meaning. a) dictionary and contextual (metaphor, metonymy, irony); b) primary and derivative (zeugma and pun); c) logical and emotive (epithet, oxymoron); d) logical and nominative (autonomasia); 2. SD based on the intensification of a feature (simile, hyperbole, periphrasis). 3. SD based on the peculiar use of set expressions (cliches, proverbs, epigram, quotations). The relation between dictionary and contextual meanings may be maintained along different lines: on the principle of affinity, on that of proximity, or symbol - referent relations, or on opposition. Thus the stylistic device based on the first principle is metaphor, on the second, metonymy and on the third, irony A metaphor is a relation between the dictionary and contextual logical meanings based on the affinity or similarity of certain properties or features of the two corresponding concepts. Metaphor can be embodied in all the meaningful parts of speech, in nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs and sometimes even in the auxiliary parts of speech , as in prepositions. Metaphor as any stylistic devices can be classified according to their degree of unexpectedness. Thus metaphors which are absolutely unexpected, are quite unpredictable, are called genuine metaphors. +e. g. Through the open window the dust danced and was golden. Metaphor can be expressed by all the meaningful parts of speech – nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, etc. a) the adjective – Example 4: “The human tide is rolling westward.» (Dickens, «Dombey and Son»); b) the verb – Example 5: «In the slanting beams that streamed through the open window, the dust danced and was golden». (O. Wilde, «The Picture of Dorian Gray») с) the adverb – Example 6: «The leaves fell sorrowfully» Metonymy is based on a relation between the dictionary and contextual meanings, a relation based not on affinity, but on some kind of association connecting the two concepts which these meanings represent on a proximity. Irony is a stylistic device also based on the simultaneous realization of two logical meanings - dictionary and contextual, but the two meanings are in opposition to each other. The literal meaning is the opposite of the intended meaning. One thing is said and the other opposite is implied. +e.g. Nice weather, isn't it? (on a rainy day). Synecdoche is a specific kind of metonymic relationship – a qualitative one where a part stands for a whole, the singular stands for the plural, e.g.: a Red Hat; Example 18: I want to live with the wolf and the owl (I want to live in the wood). 9. General notions of Stylistics. Stylistics – is a branch of general linguistics. It deals with 2 interdependent objectives Investigation of special language media which secure the desirable effect of the utterance – they are called stylistic devices(SD) and expressive means(EM). Stylistics studies the nature, functions and structure of SDs and EMs The second field of investigation is concerned with certain types of texts which due to the choice and arrangement of language means are distinguished by the pragmatic aspect of communication. These types are called functional styles of language. While discussing this problem one cannot but touch upon the general linguistic issues of oral and written varieties of language, the notion of literary (standard) language, the constituents of texts,etc. The emergence of stylistics as an independent separate science of linguistics was indirectly the result of a long-established tendency of grammarians to admit as normal only those clauses, sentences and phrases which were “well-formed” neglecting anything which didn’t correspond to the Received Standard. But the language studies cannot exclude these non-standard materials from linguistics. So, when grammar refuses to analyze anything stylistics steps in. Stylistics as a science acquired its own tools – expressive means (EM) and stylistic devices (SD). Archibald Hill states “structures, sequences and patterns which extend or may extend beyond the boundaries of individual sentences define style”. Individual style implies the peculiarities of a writer’s individual manner of using language means to achieve the effect he desires. The speech of any individual, which is characterized by particular elements, is called an idiolect that reveals his breeding and education. A writer will try to avoid showing his idiolect, instead he would leave room for genuine SD. Alexander Block once said that the style of a writer is so closely connected with the content of his soul that the “experienced eye can see the soul through his style.” In XXth century Saintsbury stated that the belles-lettres style is always a reaction against the common language, to some extent it is a jargon, a literary jargon. This idea was the motto of the literary trend of formalism, which appeared in 1920s. The result of this school was all kinds of innovations introduce into the language which principally depart from the established norms (Severianin, Mandelshtam and e.cummings) and inability of the reader to perceive the message. All said brings up the problem of the norm from which the writer deviates in order to create his individual style. There are different norms – only special kinds of them are called stylistic norms, like oral and written, norms of emotive prose and official language Even within one functional style there exist different norms – those of poetry, prose and drama. Norm – is an invariant, which should embrace all variable phonemic, morphological, lexical, and syntactic patterns with their typical properties circulating in the language at a definite period of time. 10. Polysemy, zeugma and pun. As is known, the word is at all language units, the most sensitive to change; its meaning gradually develops and as a result of this development new meanings appear alongside the primary one. It is normal for almost every word to acquire derivative meanings; sometimes the primary meaning has to make way for quite a new meaning which ousts it completely. Polysemy is a category of lexicology and as such belongs to language-as-a-system. In actual everyday speech polysemy vanishes unless it is deliberately retained for certain stylistic purposes. A context that does not seek to produce any particular stylistic effect generally materializes but one definite meaning. However, when a word begins to manifest an interplay between the primary and one of the derivative meanings we are again confronted with an SD. Zeugma is the use of a word in the same grammatical but different semantic relations to two adjacent words in the context, the semantic relations being, on the one hand, literal, and on the other, transferred. Zeugma is a strong and effective device to maintain the purity of the primary meaning when the two meanings clash. The pun is another stylistic device based on the interaction of two well-known meanings of a word or phrase. It is difficult to draw a hard and fast distinction between zeugma and the pun. The only reliable distinguishing feature is a structural one: zeugma is the 1)realization of two meanings with the help of a verb, which is made to refer to different subjects or objects (direct or indirect). The 2)pun is more independent. There need not necessarily be a word in the sentence to which the pun word refers. This does not mean, however, that the pun is entirely free. Like any other stylistic device, it must depend on a context. Puns are often used in riddles and jokes, for example, in this riddle: What is the difference between a schoolmaster and an engine driver? (One trains the mind and the other minds the train.) In Robert Frost’s poem “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening” tune poet, taking delight in watching the snow fall on the woods, concludes his poem in the following words: “The woods are lovely, dark and deep. But I have promises to keep, and miles to go before I sleep, and miles to go before I sleep.” The word promises here is made to signify two concepts , viz. 1) a previous engagement to be fulfilled and 2) moral or legal obligation. Here is another example. In Shakespearian Sonnet 29 there are the following lines: “When in disgrace with fortune and men’s eyes, I all alone beweep my outcast state, And trouble deaf heaven with my bootless cries, And think upon myself and curse by fate.” Almost every word here may be interpreted in different senses: sometimes the differences are hardly perceptible; sometimes they are obviously antagonistic to the primary meaning. But we shall confine our analysis only to the meaning of the word ‘cries’, which signifies both prayer and lamentation. The relation of the word ‘cries’ suggests these two meanings to ‘trouble deaf heaven’. But the word ‘cries’ suggests not only prayer and lamentation; it also implies violent prayer and lamentation as if in deep despair, almost with tears (see the word ‘be weep’ in the second line of the part of the sonnet quoted). Ex: And May’s mother always stood on her gentitity; and Dot’s mother never stood on anything but her active little feet. (Dickens). The word “stood” is used here twice. One meaning is independent “to stand on feet” and another is a connected meaning. There are two types of zeugma. 1) Zeugma based on interaction of independent and connected meaning of the word. Ex: He paid him a visit and a fee. He took his hat and his leave. 2) Zeugma based on interaction of primary and secondary meaning of the word. Ex: Oh man with sister dear! Oh man with mothers and wives? Ex: It is not linen you are wearing out But human creature lives wear out linen - is used in primary meaning, wear out lives - the secondary meaning . Zeugma is expressed by verb+noun, adj+noun. 9)Ex: Klara was not a narrow woman either in mind or body. Dora, plunging at once into privileged intimacy and into the middle of the room. to plunge (into the middle of a room) materializes the meaning to rush into or enterimpetuously. Here it is used in its concrete, primary, literary meaning: in “to plunge into privileged intimacy, plung is used in its derivative meaning. 3)She lost her purse, head and reputation. +Here the word “lost” has the same grammatical relation but the semantic relations are different, to loose a head or reputation that is logical connected meaning. 11. Interjections, epithet, oxymoron. The emotive meaning or emotional colouring of a word plays considerable role in stylistics. The emotive meaning of a word can be clearly understood when we compare it with its neutral meaning. Stylistic significance of emotional words and constructions are easily sensed when they are set against the non-emotional words and constructions. Interjections are words we use when we express ,our feelings strongly and which may be said to exist in the language as symbols of human emotions. They express such feelings as regret, despair, sorrow, woe, surprise , astonishment etc. They are defined as expressive means of the language. Emotionally coloured features of interjections become of stylistic device. They exist in language as conventional symbols of human emotions. The intonation with which interjections are pronounced depends on the sense of the preceding or following sentence. E.g.: "0h, where are you going, all you Big Steamers?" (Kipping) Interjection "Oh" here precedes a sentence and must be regarded as a part of it. Interjections can be divided .into primary and derivative. Primary interjections are generally devoid of any logical meaning. Derivative interjections may somewhat retain their logical meaning , though these meanings are always suppressed be emotive ones. Oh!, Ah!, Bah!, Pooh!, Download 1.48 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: 
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