O’ganilayotgan til nazariy aspektlari (nazariy grammatika, leksikologiya, stilistika)
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partially semantically reconstructed. Most of the phraseologies were created by the people in both English and other languages, their authors are unknown and their sources are not clear. In this sense, the phraseologist A.V. Kunin justified opinions that the author of most English phraseologies is unknown and they were created by the people. However, the origins of some phraseological units can be traced. In this sense, phraseology is a microsystem that is part of the general system of language, and this system reflects the heritage and values of the past, passed down from generation to generation. Many of the phraseological units that make up a system are a source of enrichment for a particular language. Phraseological system consists of phraseological units, the relationship between their main components. Phraseologisms are connections of words that consist of more than one word and are stable in meaning and form. Phraseologisms are used in a figurative sense, in figurative expressions, and have norms and methods of historical use, the meaning of which is clarified in a particular speech process. Phraseologisms are different from sentences that are a unit of speech when they are in the form of a phrase or a sentence. As a lexical unit, they are in many ways close to words, and many of the characteristics of words are also characteristic of phraseology. There are different hypotheses in defining the object of phraseology. The object of phraseology consists only of stable combinations. Phraseology is defined as the study of the spiritual and structural properties of phraseological units, their appearance in the language system, and the properties of their use at a point. Although the term "phraseology" is derived from the Greek word “frama” (phraseos), it is used to mean different things. For this reason, the term phraseology is used in linguistics in two senses: in the general sense of the existing phraseological units in the language, and in the sense of the field that studies such units. So phraseology is the science of expressions. Like other branches of linguistics, phraseology has its stages of formation and development. Although phraseology is very ancient in origin, the science of phraseology spans nearly two hundred years. The founder of the science of phraseology is the Swiss scientist Charles Bally. In his work French Stylistics (1909), he included special chapters on the study of word combinations. Ferdinand de Saussure, on the other hand, expressed his views on syntagma and its features. He said that there are ready-made units in a language whose linguistic nature is due to their meaning and syntactic properties, such combinations are used ready-made, traditionally. Phraseology is one of the fastest growing fields in the further development of linguistics. While phraseology has been studied in Russian and English linguistics for a long time, it has been studied systematically in Uzbek linguistics since the 1940s and 1950s. During this period Sh.Rakhmatullayev (1969), G.A. Bayramov (1970), G.H. Akhunzyakov (1974), V.G. Uraksin (1975), L.K. Bayramova (1983), M.F. Chernov (1986) are devoted doctoral dissertations to the study of phraseology. The sources of the origin of phraseological combinations in English are very different. It is expedient to study the origin of phraseological combinations in English into three main groups. 1. Old phraseological combinations in English 2. Phraseological combinations learned from other languages 3. Phraseological combinations derived from the American version of English The authors of most of the phraseological combinations in English are still unknown to science. This problem is especially evident in articles that are considered to be a type of stable combination. Phraseological combinations in all languages, especially in English, are also folk art that reflects the wisdom and linguistic taste of the nation. Many phraseological units reflect the traditions, customs and beliefs of the English people, historical truths and facts of English history that we know and do not know. The roots of many phraseological units go back to professional communication. The main source of phraseological combinations is the change of their meanings of interconnected words. Many English phraseologies are derived from works of art and various literary sources. According to the number of phraseological combinations in English, after the literary sources, the first place is occupied by the Bible, and the second place is occupied by phraseology from Shakespeare’s works. The works of writers, children’s poetry, fairy tales, caricatures are also the source of phraseology. V.V. Vinogradov classifies phraseology into three classes: phraseological fusions, phraseological units, phraseological collocations or combinations. Phraseological fusioncomponents are phraseologies that are not related to the meaning of the whole unit. Phraseological units are made up of words that have a specific valence. One component of such phraseological units is used in its literal sense, the rest in a metaphorical sense. Phraseological units are, to a certain extent, semantically indivisible. For example: heavy father – the main role in the play; to kick the bucket – to die. Phraseologisms such as the bureaucratic method are idioms that have the same meaning as a whole. Phraseological fusion is a completely different meaning of a phrase. But unlike phraseological combinations, their meanings are not understood from the meanings of their components. Words and phrases from the Bible are widely used in Stoffen’s Studies in English, Written and Spoken. In the chapter “Scriptural phrases and Allusions in Modern”, the scholar studied biblical phrases and their etymology and made a scientific analysis. The study of biblicalism in Western linguistics is also associated with the name of L.P. Smith. He studied the Bible phrases in his book, Phraseology of the English Language. The author writes, “The number of biblical phrases and expressions in English is so great that it is not an easy task to compile and list them”. L.P. Smith argues that English contains not only a number of biblical words, but also biblical idiomatic expressions that represent a literal translation of ancient Hebrew and Greek idioms. As a result of the analysis, the following are examples of phraseological combinations with food components related to the Bible: – a pair of apples; – a beautiful but fresh fruit; – abundance; – waiting anxiously; – a forbidden wet fruit Biblical Phraseologies English food component phraseologies include food names such as apple, bread, milk, fat and olive. There are also phraseological units associated with place names in English. Their analysis and research can be found in the scientific work of M. Rajabova. The study of place names is considered not only as an object of linguistics, but also as an object of history and geography. One of the current issues of modern linguistics is the study of linguoculturalism in the context of phraseologies that come with place names, to highlight their national and cultural aspects. Examples of place names include the following units: have kissed the Blarney stone – flattering. In Ireland, there is a large stone in front of Blair’s castle, and according to English folklore, a person who kisses this stone has a flaw of flattery, laziness; go for a Burton - to die, to turn a blind eye, to disappear without a trace. Barton is a small beer-producing town in Staffordshire. The phrase was first used by British pilots to commemorate their comrades-in-arms who died in World War II. L.P. Smith argues that English contains not only a large number of biblical words, but also biblical idiomatic expressions that represent a literal translation of the ancient Hebrew and Greek idioms. For example, Adam’s apple – a phraseological unit with a food component – translates as “to add”, “to swallow an apple”. - George entered the office of the property brober, a little bold, old man with a thin neck and prominent Adam’s apple. A forbidden fruit is a forbidden wet fruit - It is somewhat ironic that many places which need water most critically have herge reserves their front yard - California and Texas for example. Yet the salt in the sea water makes it a forbidden fruit. The Bible is the main source for a lot of food-related phraseologies in the Bible. Phraseological fusions are phraseologies in which the meanings of the components are not related to the meaning of the whole unit. For example, heavy father – the main role in a theatrical play, to kick the bucket – to die, red tape – the meaning of bureaucratic methods are phraseologies that give a single meaning that does not depend on the meaning of the words in it. Phraseological fusion is a combination of words whose meaning has changed completely. But unlike phraseological combinations, their meanings are not understood from the meanings of their components, and metaphor-based semantic transitions lose their clarity. Phrases such as to leave somebody in lunch (to abaodon a friend when he is in trouble), to show the white feather (to betray one’s cowardice), to dance attendenceon somebody (to try and attract somebody, to show exaggerated attention) can be an examples. 94.Etymology: words that appear in the language under study and words that come into it from other languages and their types, assimilation, assimilation. Etymology and Other Linguistic Fields Etymology finds itself in a symbiotic relationship with some of the other disciplines of historical linguistics. In 1875, the American pioneer William Dwight Whitney (1827–94) declared (echoing thoughts voiced earlier in the century by Jakob Grimm): “The whole process of linguistic research begins in and depends upon etymology” (quoted in Malkiel, 1993: 20). The sound correspondences that form the backbone of the study of a language's formal evolution are extrapolated from a large quantity of accepted and verified etymologies. An equally reliable etymological database is needed to study the patterns of semantic evolution. Yet, a deep knowledge of formal and semantic evolutionary patterns identified on the basis of well-established etymologies is essential for the reconstruction or identification of the etymon of the many words in a language whose origins are unclear, controversial, or completely unknown. Many of the nineteenth-century pioneers of etymological research authored both historical grammars and, separately, etymological dictionaries of the same language or language family, for example, Jakob Grimm (1822– 1837, 1854–1960 (the latter work was carried out in collaboration with his brother Wilhelm Grimm)) for German and Friedrich Diez (1836–1844, 1853) and Wilhelm Meyer-Lübke (1890–1902, 1911–1920) for Romance. In all three cases, publication of the historical grammar preceded the corresponding etymological dictionary. The close relationship between etymology and other fields of historical linguistic research constitutes one of the main themes running through the etymological writings of the Romanist Yakov Malkiel (see, for example, the essays collected in Malkiel, 1968). Etymology has to distinguish between the immediate and the distant origin of the word under study. Etymological studies of the lexicon of a specific language tend to work backward from the modern language. Historians of each language or language family must delimit, in light of the available linguistic and extralinguistic data, how far back in time to trace the word's origin. For example, etymological studies of the inherited lexicon of a Romance language traditionally seek to identify the appropriate (documented) Latin base of a Romance word, without discussing the more distant Italic or IE origin of the relevant Latin form (although there are exceptions, such as the Indo-Europeanist Giacomo Devoto's Avviamento alla etimologia italiana, which identifies, when relevant, the IE root of the etymon). In the case of the numerous borrowings from other languages that entered each Romance language through contact situations, the etymologist will identify the etymon that entered from the immediate source language, without elaborating on its origins in the donor language. To give but one example, the historian of the Spanish lexicon will identify Spanish azul ‘blue’ as a borrowing from Arabic (its immediate origin) but will not discuss the circumstances of this word's entry into Arabic from Persian. On the other hand, the author of an etymological dictionary of Gothic can choose to identify either the proto- Germanic or the proto-Indo-European root of the lexical item under examination. Etymology is the branch of linguistic science that treats the history of words and their components, with the aim of determining their origin and their derivation. Differing from historical linguistics in its concentration on the lexicon and derivational morphology it nonetheless relies heavily on the more general study of advances in the treatment of phonology and inflectional morphology. Accordingly etymology has become more precise as historical linguistics has gained information about languages, as it has also through the study of dialect geography and sociolinguistics. Distinguished from native words, imported words are classified by their origin and background as well as their form. Those adopted from other languages are known as borrowings if only the elements of imported words are translated, the resulting words are known as loan translations or calques; if only the meaning is taken over, as semantic loans; if elements of foreign words are paired with native elements, the results are known as hybrids. Besides accounting for the development of native words and the origin of imported words, etymological study may provide information on the earlier grammar and lexicon of both source and target language, and on the social and cultural situation of these at the time of borrowing. Assimilation is a sound change in which some phonemes (typically consonants or vowels) change to become more similar to other nearby sounds. A common type of phonological process across languages, assimilation can occur either within a word or between words. It occurs in normal speech but becomes more common in more rapid speech. In some cases, assimilation causes the sound spoken to differ from the normal pronunciation in isolation, such as the prefix in- of English input pronounced with phonetic [m] rather than [n]. In other cases, the change is accepted as canonical for that word or phrase, especially if it is recognized in standard spelling: implant pronounced with [m], composed historically of in + plant. English "handbag" (canonically /ˈhændbæɡ/) is often pronounced /ˈhæmbæɡ/ in rapid speech because the [m] and [b] sounds are both bilabial consonants, and their places of articulation are similar. However, the sequence [d]-[b] has different places but similar manner of articulation (voiced stop) and is sometimes elided, which sometimes causes the canonical [n] phoneme to assimilate to [m] before the [b]. The pronunciations /ˈhænbæɡ/ or /ˈhændbæɡ/ are, however, common in normal speech. In contrast, the word "cupboard", although it is historically a compound of "cup" /kʌp/ and "board" /bɔːrd/, is always pronounced /ˈkʌbərd/, never */ˈkʌpbɔːrd/, even in slow, highly- articulated speech. Like in those examples, sound segments typically assimilate to a following sound,[note 1] but they may also assimilate to a preceding one.[note 2] Assimilation most commonly occurs between immediately adjacent-sounds but may occur between sounds that are separated by others.[note 3] Assimilation can be synchronic, an active process in a language at a given point in time, or diachronic, a historical sound change. A related process is coarticulation in which one segment influences another to produce an allophonic variation, such as vowels becoming nasalized before nasal consonants (/n, m, ŋ/) when the soft palate (velum) opens prematurely or /b/ becoming labialized as in "boot" [bʷuːt̚] or "ball" [bʷɔːɫ] in some accents. This article describes both processes under the term assimilation. 95.International words and etymological duplicates. 96.Non-finite forms of the verb. 97.The productivity of affixes in Modern English. 98.The problem of dictionary compiling. 99.Metonymy and its usage in speech. 100.Methods of translation of collocations of phrasal words 101.English for Specific Purposes 102.Some features of translation of eponyms and acronyms 103.The problem of periodization of history of the English Language 104.Lexical means of expressing emotions in English. 105.Methods and procedures of lexicological analysis 106.Neologisms in English. 107.The structure of Business English lexicon 108.Morphological structure of English words 109.Expressive force of syntactical models 110.The Role of Metaphor in English and Uzbek languages 111.English idioms and their usage in sentence 112.The category of voice in English 113.Non-affixation ways of word-formation 114) The loan words: a way of their interaction with the system of the language. A loanword (also loan word or loan-word) is a word permanently adopted from one language (the donor language) and incorporated into another language without translation. This is in contrast to cognates, which are words in two or more languages that are similar because they share an etymological origin, and calques, which involve translation. Loanwords from languages with different scripts are usually transliterated (between scripts), but they are not translated.A loanword is distinguished from a calque (or loan translation), which is a word or phrase whose meaning or idiom is adopted from another language by word-for-word translation into existing words or word- forming roots of the recipient language. Loanwords, in contrast, are not translated.Examples of loanwords in the English language include café (from French café, which means "coffee"), bazaar (from Persian bāzār, which means "market"), and kindergarten (from German Kindergarten, which literally means "children's garden"). The word calque is a loanword from the French noun calque ("tracing; imitation; close copy");while the word loanword and the phrase loan translation are calques of the German nouns Lehnwort and Lehnübersetzung.Loans of multi-word phrases, such as the English use of the French term déjà vu, are known as adoptions, adaptations, or lexical borrowings.Although colloquial and informal register loanwords are typically spread by word-of- mouth, technical or academic loanwords tend to be first used in written language, often for scholarly, scientific, or literary purposes.The terms substrate and superstrate are often used when two languages interact. However, the meaning of these terms is reasonably well-defined only in second language acquisition or language replacement events, when the native speakers of a certain source language (the substrate) are somehow compelled to abandon it for another target language.Most of the technical vocabulary of classical music (such as concerto, allegro, tempo, aria, opera, and soprano) is borrowed from Italian, and that of ballet from French. Much of the terminology of the sport of fencing also comes from French. Many loanwords come from prepared food, drink, fruits, vegetables, seafood and more from languages around the world. In particular, many come from French cuisine (crêpe, crème brûlée), Italian (pasta, linguine, espresso), and Chinese (dim sum, chow mein, wonton). 115) Stylistic classification of the English vocabulary. The word stock of the English language is divided into 3 mail layers: the literary, the neutral, and the colloquial. The literary and the colloquial contain a number of subgroups within the layer. This common property with units the different groups of words within the layer may be called its aspect. The aspect of the literary layer is its markedly bookish character. This makes the layer more or less stable. The aspect of the colloquial layer is its lively spoken character. This makes its unstable, fleeting. The aspect of the neutral layer is its universal character. That means it is unrestricted in its use. It can be used in all styles of language and in all spheres of human activity. This makes the layer the most stable of all.The colloquial layer of words is frequently limited to a defined language community or can find special locality where it circulates.The literary layer of words consist of groups excepted as legitimate members of the English vocabulary. They have no local or dialect character. The literary vocabulary consist of the following groups of words: 1. common literary words 2. terms and learned words 3. poetic words 4. archaic words 5. barbarisms and foreign words 6. lit. coinages including nonce-words The colloquial includes the following groups of words: common colloquial words slang, jargonizes professional words dialectal words vulgar words colloquial coinages The common literary, neutral and common colloquial words are called standard English vocabulary. Other groups in the literary layer are regarded as special literary vocabulary and in the colloquial are regarded as special colloquial vocabulary. Neutral words which form the bulk of the English vocabulary are used in both literary and colloquial language. Neutral words are the main source of synonymy and polysemy. Colloquial/Neutral/Literary Kid/child/infant Daddy/father/parent Go on/continue/proceed Teenager/boy, Girl/youth (maiden) Archaic words The word-stock of a language is in an increasing state of change. In registering this process the role of dictionaries can hardly be over estimated. Dictionaries serve to retain this or that word in a language. In the ageing process at words 3 stage can registered/ The beginning of the ageing process, then the word becomes rarely used. Such words are called obsolescent (выходящими из употребления). To this category first of all belongs morphological forms of the earlier stages in the development of the language Thou – ты /из этого слова / thee – тебя, тобой/ thine – твое, твоя, твой/To the category of obsolescent words belong many French borrowings, which have been kept in the literary language as a means of preserving the spirit of earlier period: a pallet – a straw mattress / a palfrey – a small horse / garniture – furniture A second group of archaic words are whose that have already gone completely out of use, but are still recognized be the English speaking community: nay = no / methinks = it seems to me/ These words are called obsolete.The third group which may be called archaic proper are words which are no longer recognizable in modern English and which have no either dropped out of the language entirely or have changed in their appearance so much, that they have become unrecognizable: throth (treuф) = faith честность / losel = a worthless fellow никчёмный человек.A new lines where is still another class of words which is erroneously classed as archaic this are historical words. By-gone period in the life of any society are marked by historical events, and by customs, material objects which are no longer in use: thane (фein) – глава клана / yeomant (иэмэн) – фермер средней руки. Words of this type never disappear from language, they are historical terms and remain as terms referring to different stages in the development of society. Historical words have no synonyms and they are used to create a realistic background in historical novels. Barbarisms and foreign words Варваризмы стали частью языка, иностр.заимствования – нет. Barbarisms are words of foreign origin which have been assimilated into English language. Most of them have corresponding English synonyms: chic = stylish / bon mot (бон мэу) = clever witty saying (меткое слово) / en passant = in passing (мимоходом). Barbarisms are words which have already become parts of the English language vocabulary. Foreign words don’t belong to the English language vocabulary. They are not registered by English dictionaries except in a kind of addenda (приложения), which give the meaning of the foreign words most frequently used in the literary English. In printed view foreign words and phrases are generally italicized to indicate their alien nature or their stylistic value. There are some words in English vocabulary which fulfill a terminological function: udarnik, silovik, perestroika, apparatchik denote certain consents which reflect on objective reality not familiar to English speaking communities/ there no names to them in English and so they have to be explained. Further such words as solo, tenor, blitz should also be distinguished from barbarisms. They are terms. Terminological borrowings have no synonymous. Both foreign words and barbarisms are nightly used in various style of language with their typical function. The first function is to supply local color. In order to depict local conditions of life, concrete facts and even customs and habits. Another function is to build up the stylistic device. The use of a word or phrase or a sentence in the reported speech of a local inhabitant, help reproduce actual words, manner of speech and and the environment as well. Barbarisms and foreign words are used in various styles of language, but are most often to be found in the style of belles-letter and the publicistic style. 116) Specific features of the scientific style. Style- a kind of literary language, which is traditionally fixed in society for one of the spheres of life. Each variety has certain linguistic features (primarily vocabulary and grammar) and is opposed to other similar varieties of the literary language, which correlate with other areas of life and have their own linguistic features.Style associated with the state of society, it is historically changeable. In the days of Lomonosov, one could only talk about styles of book speech; while highlighting three styles: high, medium And short. Today stand out in the language four styles: three bookstores (scientific, official business, journalistic) And colloquial style. Selection artistic style remains the subject of scientific debate.We can only talk about relative isolation literary language styles. Most of the language means in each style – neutral, interstyle. The core of everyone style form the linguistic means inherent in it with the appropriate stylistic coloring and uniform norms of use.Stylistic means used by speakers or writers consciously. Style speech work is associated with its content, purpose, relations between speaking(writing) and listening(to the reader). Style- a variety of literary language that has historically developed at a certain time in a particular society, which is a relatively closed system of linguistic means that are constantly and consciously used in various spheres of life. Each functional style may exist as both in writing and orally.Every style characterized the following features: but) terms communication; b) goal communication; in) forms (genres) in which it exists; G) set of language tools and the nature of their use.In speech practice, there may be style interaction, the penetration of linguistic means assigned to a particular area social activities, in areas of communication unusual for them. It is justified if it is motivated by a specific communicative goal. Otherwise, use different styles linguistic means within a single text leads to the appearance stylistic mistakes. scientific style scientific style speech is one of the functional varieties of the literary language, serving the sphere of science and production; it is realized in book specialized texts of different genres, mainly in writing speech, although the role and oral form scientific speech (congresses, conferences, symposia).Science is called upon to give true information about the world around us. Scientific texts related to the orientation towards the professional reader. The main features of the language of science – accuracy, abstractness, consistency And objectivity of presentation.An important feature of science is accuracy. Requirement accuracy predetermines such a feature of the scientific style dictionary as terminology. main feature and value term in that it carries logical information of a large volume, is accurate and unambiguous. scientific style imposes a ban on non-literary vocabulary ( jargon, dialectisms, colloquial words), does not allow the use literary words that have emotional coloring.The desire for generalization, abstraction is manifested in scientific stylein the predominance abstract vocabulary above specific. Frequent are abstract nouns of the type: , perspective, truth, thinking and etc. Objectivity appears in the text scientific works both in the presence of some obligatory components of the content, and in the form - in the manner of narration. One of the main ways to create the effect of objectivity content is reference to scientific tradition- an indication of an appeal to a given object of study, problem, term, etc. other scientists. " Objectivity of form» scientific style involves the rejection of linguistic means that are associated with the transmission emotions: interjections and particles that convey emotions and feelings, emotionally colored vocabulary and expressive sentence models are not used; a clear preference is given to a neutral word order; for scientific speech exclamatory intonation is not typical, interrogative intonation is used to a limited extent. Requirement objectivity also defines the rejection of narration in the first person, i.e. from the “personal” manner of narration (the use of generalized personal and impersonal constructions, the scientific “we”, etc.).Linguistic features of the scientific style Lexical features: a) the use of words in their direct meaning ; b) lack of figurative means: epithets, metaphors, artistic comparisons, poetic symbols, hyperbole; c) widespread use abstract vocabulary And terms(general scientific and highly specialized vocabulary), the frequency of derivatives with suffixes -ist (impressionist), -awn (settled way of life), meas- (symbolism), -from-a (longitude), -none (cloning). Morphological features: a) have the highest frequency of use nouns, and among them the majority belongs to nouns with an abstract meaning that do not have a plural form: time, movement, direction etc., including verbal noun; b) in a scientific text adjectives few, and many of them are used as part of terms, have an exact, highly specialized meaning; while the frequency of use short adjectives in a scientific style is several times higher than in others ( equal, proportional, similar, capable, possible, characteristic);in) Verbs most often have the form of the present tense (with a "timeless" meaning); in a scientific text, verbs in the 1st and 2nd person are practically not used. h. Syntax features: a) use complex sentences, especially complex ones; b) widespread use introductory words; c) use of words given, known, relevant as means of communication; d) permissibility of use chains of genitives: establishing the dependence of the wavelength of x- rays of an atom. (Kapitsa); e) frequency of use involved And participle turns. In the field of science, the main written genres are abstracts, article and monograph, since it is with their help that new scientific information; other genres represent either processing of this information, which they give, presenting information in an adapted, compressed form ( abstract, abstract), or give her evaluation(review, review). 117) Word groups. Syntactic bonds between words. A sentence is built up of words and word-groups. A word-group is a unit formed by a combination of two or more notional words, which does not constitute a sentence. A word-group differs from a sentence in as much as it does not perform a communication. A word- group as such has no intonation, intonation being one of the most important properties of a sentence. In the sentence - A week of heavy reading had passed since that evening. - There are the following word-groups: 1. A week of heavy reading = a noun group; 2. had passed since that evening = a verb group. Grammar is concerned with free syntactical word-groups formed each time a new, and is not concerned with phraseological phrases belonging to the vocabulary of a language. Compare: an interesting book; to run quickly (free word-groups) first aid; to take the floor (set phrases.There are three main types of syntactic connections (ie bonds) between words: subordination, coordination and predication. Accordingly, word-groups in modern English are classified into the following types: subordinate, coordinate and predicative word-groups.1. Subordinate word-groups consist of words which are syntactically unequal as one of the constituent elements, called the "head", is modified by a dependent element, called an "adjunct". Due to this feature, subordinate word-groups can be called "dominal."Subordinate connection is achieved by different classes of words, prepositions (ie prepositional government) and word-order. Eg: a pretty girl ( girl = a head- word, pretty = an adjunct, ie modifier); a book of stories ( book = a head-word, of stories = prepositional adjunct); The head and the adjunct of a subordinate word-group are its immediate constituents. The head is that part of a subordinate word-group which can replace the whole word- group in a sentence. The adjunct is the part of a subordinate word- group which cannot be substituted for the head. Noun-groups and verb-groups are the most wide-spread types of word-groups in modern English. According to the structure, subordinate word-groups are classified into:simple (unextended) word- groups, consisting of two notional words: an interesting book, very tired, etc.· complex (extended) word-groups, containing more than two notional words: a very interesting book; to work pretty hard, etc. 2. Coordinate word-groups comprise elements which have the same syntactic function, being related to one another on an equal rank. Depending on this feature, this kind of word-groups can be called "equipotent." For instance: Nick and John; day and night; came and went; tired but happy, etc. 3. Predicative word-groups are formed by a combination of a noun phrase or a pronoun in the objective case and a non-finite verbal form, reflecting the relationship between the logical subject and the predicate. Such are infinitival, gerundial or participial constructions. For instance I saw him crossing the street. ( him crossing the street = predicative word-group in the function of complex object); They got into the car and drove away, the dog running after them barking. (the dog running after them barking = predicative word-group, so called Nominative Absolute Participial Construction in the function of adverbial modifier of attending circumstances). Download 1.48 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: 
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