O’ganilayotgan til nazariy aspektlari (nazariy grammatika, leksikologiya, stilistika)
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Obsolete word is a temporal label commonly used by lexicographers (that is, editors
of dictionaries) to indicate that a word (or a particular form or sense of a word) is no longer in active use in speech and writing. "In general," notes Peter Meltzer, "the difference between an obsolete word and an archaic word is that, although both have fallen into disuse, an obsolete word has done so more recently" (The Thinker's Thesaurus, 2010). Commonly Misused Words | Grammar School The editors of The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (2006) make this distinction: Archaic. [T]his label is attached to entry words and senses for which there is only sporadic evidence in after 1755 . . .. Obsolete. [T]his label is attached to entry words and senses for which there is little or no printed evidence since 1755. In addition, as Knud Sørensen points out, "it sometimes occurs that words which have become obsolete in Britain continue to be current in the United States (compare Amer. Engl. fall and Brit. Engl. autumn)" (Languages in Contact and Contrast, 1991). Following are some examples of obsolete words: Illecebrous "Illecebrous [ill-less-uh-brus] an obsolete word meaning 'attractive, alluring.' From a Latin word meaning 'to entice.'" (Erin McKean, Totally Weird and Wonderful Words. Oxford University Press, 2006) Mawk "The underlying meaning of mawkish is 'maggotish.' It was derived from a now obsolete word mawk, which meant literally 'maggot' but was used figuratively (like maggot itself) for a 'whim' or 'fastidious fancy.' Hence mawkish originally meant 'nauseated, as if repelled by something one is too fastidious to eat.' In the 18th century the notion of 'sickness' or 'sickliness' produced the present-day sense 'over-sentimental.'" (John Ayto, Word Origins, 2nd ed. A & C Black, 2005) 55.The morphemic structure of the word. The morphemic structure of English words. Typology of morphemes. Structural and semantic classifications of morphemes. Morphology is a branch of linguistics which studies the form, inner structure, function, and patterns of occurrence of a morpheme as the smallest meaningful unit of language. The term morphology (Gr. morphé ‘form, shape’ and lógos ‘study’) was borrowed from biology by the German writer J. W. von Goethe in the 19th century; it was taken up by linguistics to designate the study of form and structure of living organisms as a cover term for inflection and word formation. Theoretical foundations of morphology were laid in Aristotle’s grammars and Stoics’ works, who were the first to define four parts of speech (the noun, the verb, the conjunction, and the link), introduced the notions of case, gender system of nouns, the system of verbal tenses. The fundamental principles of modern European grammars were established by Aristotle’s disciple Dionysus from Fracia (II c. BC), who singled out eight parts of speech (the noun, the verb, the participle, the link, the pronoun, the preposition, the adverb, and the conjunction). In the 19th c. interest in morphology was stimulated by the development of approaches to world languages classification resulting in the study of general laws of structure and significant elements such as prefixes and inflections. In the 20th c. the field of morphology has been narrowed to the study of the internal structure of words. The structure of English words: A morpheme (Gr. morphé ‘form, shape’) is one of the fundamental units of a language, a minimum sign that is an association of a given meaning with a given form (sound and graphic), e.g. old, un+happy, grow+th, blue+colour+ed. Depending on the number of morphemes, words are divided into: monomorphic are root-words consisting of only one root-morpheme, i.e. simple words, e.g. to grow, a book, white, fast etc. polymorphic are words consisting of at least one root-morpheme and a number of derivational affixes, i.e. derivatives, compounds, e.g. good-looking, employee, blue-eyed etc. Types of morphemes: An allomorph (a morphemic variant) (Gr. állos ‘different’ and morphé ‘form, shape’) is a phonetically conditioned positional variant of the same derivational or functional morpheme identical in meaning and function and differing in sound only insomuch, as their complementary distribution produces various phonetic assimilation effects, e.g. please /pli:z/ pleasure /pleʒ/ pleasant /plez/. Complementary distribution takes place when two linguistic variants cannot appear in the same environment, e.g. in-competent, il-logical, ir-responsible, im-possible; cat-s, box-es; organis- ation, corrup-tion. Contastive distribution characterises different morphemes occurring in the same linguistic environment, but signaling different meanings, e.g. –able in measurable and –ed in measured. A pseudo-morpheme (a quasi-morpheme) is a morpheme which has a differential meaning and a distributional meaning but does not possess any lexical or functional (part-of-speech) meaning, e.g. re- and -tain in retain, con- and –ceive in conceive etc. A unique morpheme is an isolated pseudo-morpheme which does not occur in other words but is understood as meaningful because the constituent morphemes display a more or less clear denotational meaning, e.g. ham- in hamlet (cf. booklet, ringlet), cran- in cranberry (журавлина), mul- in mulberry (шовковиця), -et in pocket etc. Structural classification of morphemes: free morphemes are morphemes which coincide with a word-form of an independently functioning word; they can be found only among roots, e.g. hero- as in heroism, event- as in eventful; bound morphemes are morphemes which do not coincide with a separate word-form; they include all affixes, e.g. de- as in decode, -less as in fearless, -s as in girls; some root- morphemes, e.g. docu- as in document, horr- as in horrible, theor- as in theory etc; semi-bound (semi-free) morphemes are morphemes which stand midway between a root and an affix; they can function as an independent full-meaning word and an affix at the same time, e.g. to speak ill of sb – to be ill-dressed / ill-bred / ill-fed; Semi-prefixes: half-, mini-, midi-, maxi-, self-, by- etc.; Semi-suffixes: -man, -like, -proof, -friendly, -oriented, -ware etc Semantic classification of morphemes: According to the role they play in the structure of words, morphemes fall into: root (radical) morphemes – the lexical nuclei of words which are characterised by individual lexical meaning shared by no other morpheme of the language; the root remains after the removal of all functional and derivational affixes and does not admit any further analysis, e.g teach- in to teach, teacher, teaching; non-root morphemes represented by inflectional morphemes (inflections) and affixational morphemes (affixes). According to the position in a word, affixational morphemes fall into: prefixes – derivational affixes standing before the stem and modifying its meaning, e.g. ex- minister, in-sensitive, re-read etc.; about 51 in the system of Modern English; suffixes – derivational affixes following the stem and forming a new derivative within the same part of speech (e.g. king-dom, book-let, child-hood etc.) or in a different word class (e.g. do- er, wash-able, sharp-en etc.); infixes – affixational morphemes placed within a word, e.g –n– in stand. According to their functions and meaning, affixes fall into: derivational, e.g. suffixes: abstract-noun-makers (-age, -dom, -ery, -ing, -ism); concrete-noun- makers (-eer, -er, -ess, -let); adverb-makers (-ly, -ward(s), -wise); verb-makers (-ate, -en, -ify, -ize/-ise); adjective-/noun-makers (-ful, -ese, -(i)an, -ist), etc.; they are attached to a derivational base; they are the object of study of derivational morphology which investigates the way in which new items of vocabulary can be built up out of combinations of elements; functional (inflectional), e.g. -s (plurality; 3rd person singular); ‘s (genitive case); -n’t (contracted negative); -ed (past tense; past participle); -ing (present participle); -er, -est (comparison); they are attached to a morphological stem; they are the object of study of inflectional morphology which deals with the way words vary in their form in order to express a grammatical contrast. derivational affixes encode lexical meaning; are syntactically irrelevant; can occur inside derivation; often change the part of speech; are often semantically opaque; are often restricted in their productivity; are not restricted to suffixation. 56.Types of morphemes . What are Morphemes? Definition A morpheme is the smallest meaningful and syntactical or grammatical unit of a language that cannot be divided without changing its actual meaning. For instance, the word ‘love’ is a morpheme; but if you eliminate any character such as ‘e’ then it will be meaningless or lose the actual meaning of love. Now we can say a morpheme is the smallest grammatical unit of a language by which meaningful words are formed. However, this is how we may define ‘what is a morpheme in linguistics? A "morpheme" is a short segment of language that meets three basic criteria: 1. It is a word or a part of a word that has meaning. 2. It cannot be divided into smaller meaningful segments without changing its meaning or leaving a meaningless remainder. 3. It has relatively the same stable meaning in different verbal environments. Free and Bound Morphemes There are two types of morphemes-free morphemes and bound morphemes. "Free morphemes" can stand alone with a specific meaning, for example, eat, date, weak. "Bound morphemes" cannot stand alone with meaning. Morphemes are comprised of two separate classes called (a) bases (or roots) and (b) affixes. A "base," or "root" is a morpheme in a word that gives the word its principle meaning. An example of a "free base" morpheme is woman in the word womanly. An example of a "bound base" morpheme is -sent in the word dissent. Affixes An "affix" is a bound morpheme that occurs before or after a base. An affix that comes before a base is called a "prefix." Some examples of prefixes are ante-, pre-, un-, and dis-, as in the following words: antedate prehistoric unhealthy disregard An affix that comes after a base is called a "suffix." Some examples of suffixes are -ly, -er, -ism, and -ness, as in the following words: happily gardener capitalism kindness Derivational Affixes An affix can be either derivational or inflectional. "Derivational affixes" serve to alter the meaning of a word by building on a base. In the examples of words with prefixes and suffixes above, the addition of the prefix un- to healthy alters the meaning of healthy. The resulting word means "not healthy." The addition of the suffix -er to garden changes the meaning of garden, which is a place where plants, flowers, etc., grow, to a word that refers to 'a person who tends a garden.' It should be noted that all prefixes in English are derivational. However, suffixes may be either derivational or inflectional. Inflectional Affixes There are a large number of derivational affixes in English. In contrast, there are only eight "inflectional affixes" in English, and these are all suffixes. English has the following inflectional suffixes, which serve a variety of grammatical functions when added to specific types of words. These grammatical functions are shown to the right of each suffix. -s noun plural -'s noun possessive -s verb present tense third person singular -ing verb present participle/gerund -ed verb simple past tense -en verb past perfect participle -er adjective comparative -est adjective superlative Nouns: Plural (-s): The courses. Possessive: Jack‘s courses. Verbs: 3rd person singular number non-past (-s): Jack teaches English well. He reaches the place on time. Possessive (-ing): He is writing. She is singing. Past participle (-en/ed): He has written the book. He worked Adjectives: Comparative: (-er): John is happier than before. Superlative: (-est): He is the tallest person in the class. After learning all the definitions, types, and examples, you have gotten a clear picture of morphemes and, more specifically, a morpheme in linguistics. After all, this is how we can define morphemes. 57.Affixation and its subdivision. Affixation is one of the most productive ways of word-building throughout the history of English. It consists in adding an affix to the stem of a definite part of speech. Affixation is divided into suffixation and prefixation.Word – building is one of the main ways of enriching vocabulary. Affixation is one of the most productive ways of word building throughout the history of English. The main function of affixation in Modern English is to form one part of speech from another; the secondary function is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech. As we are future teacher must know the rules of word – formation. It will help us to teach our students. Besides if we know affixes we can easily form new words while we are writing or speaking, The aims and purposes of the work. The goal of the work is based on detailed study of affixation, which play important role in word – formation. According to this general aim the following Download 1.48 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: 
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