Producer price indices volume 2002, Supplement 2
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MEI Methodological Analysis - Supplement 2
© 2002 36 services are also included as part of HFCE. The consumption of goods and services obtained through barter should form part of HFCE. Taxes and subsidies – All taxes directly related to income or wealth are out of scope of a CPI since they are transfers, with which no identifiable transfer of consumer goods or services can be associated. Thus, the question is concerned with indirect taxes, such as taxes on consumption/use, fees for licences, excise duties, value-added type taxes (VAT) and other sales taxes. Reference to national accounts concepts (scope of HFCE) would suggest that fees for passports and payments for all licences (except those for owning/using vehicles, boats and aircraft, and hunting, shooting and fishing) should be included, as these have the nature of a payment for a service rather than a tax. Car taxes (road fund licences) are excluded, as are licence fees regarded as taxes, e.g., licence fees for TVs, driving, firearms, etc. This is the approach taken in the HICP, although many countries do include taxes for private vehicle use, presumably since this is seen as a tax on consumption so that the SNA 93 treatment as a tax on production is viewed as inappropriate to CPIs. National accounts concepts also state that sales taxes and VAT should be included as part of the price paid by consumers 30 . Similarly, compensation CPIs are generally intended to reflect the experience of the consumer. Sales taxes are therefore included in the prices used for CPIs, as are subsidised and controlled prices. For example, the CPI records the fixed prices paid by consumers for prescribed pharmaceuticals. For inflation indices on the other hand, the price increases due to changes in indirect taxes or subsidies are not part of an underlying inflationary process but are of a different nature, and thus the effects of taxes and subsidies might be excluded. But this brings to light an apparent conflict and circularity in the use of compensation indices – on the one hand they should reflect the purchasing experience of households, i.e., including taxes and subsidies, but they are also used to increase the purchasing power of households through the indexation of wages and benefits. So, any increase in indirect taxes leads to an increase in wages and benefits, despite the fact that the aim of the tax increase might have been to reduce consumers’ purchasing power. Similarly, an increase in subsidies might be intended to increase purchasing power, but the resulting lower prices are offset by a smaller increase in indexed wages and benefits. In theory, net price indices that exclude all indirect taxes and subsidies, or changes in them, would require the application of input-output analysis to work out their cumulative impact through all stages of production. However, many countries take a simplified approach. 31 Charitable donations and gifts – Payments of subscriptions to clubs and societies, including charities, which provide their members with some kind of service (e.g., regular meetings, magazines, etc.) can be regarded as final consumption and in scope for a CPI. Payments of subscriptions or donations to charitable organisations, for which no easily identifiable service is received should be considered as a transfer to a non-profit institution serving households – but by national accounts convention the consumption of the goods and services provided by non-profit-making organisations 30 SNA 93 classifies VAT as a tax on products, and all taxes on products and production are included in CPIs. Thus VAT, excise taxes, import duties, etc. are included. 31 For example, some of the taxes on vehicle fuel will enter the price of transport services which in turn will enter the prices of transported goods, some of which will enter the prices of the consumer goods for which they are inputs and some of which will enter the prices paid for consumer goods by retailers and hence the prices which they charge to consumers. To track all these impacts would demand a much more detailed and up to date input-output table than is available in most countries. A more practicable alternative is therefore to confine the taxes and subsidies for which correction is made to those levied at the final stage of sale at retail, that is primarily to VAT, sales and excise taxes. Estimating prices less only these taxes, or corrected for changes in only these taxes is more feasible. In the case of a percentage sales tax or VAT the calculation is simple, but in the case of excise taxes, it is necessary to ascertain the percentage markup by the retailer, since the excise tax will also be marked up by this percentage. 37 Price Indices © 2002 serving households is considered as part of HFCE and thus also in scope of a deflation CPI. For practical purposes, however, it can be very difficult to specify an indicator item for pricing, or a weight for this type of ad-hoc donation. Illegal prices and consumption – All consumer goods and services are in scope, irrespective of whether their production or consumption is illegal or carried out on the black market. In the case of a compensation index, where the scope is defined to suit the needs of policy-makers, these expenditures may or may not be in scope, according to policy needs. However, despite the theoretical reasons for including them, these expenditures are rarely included as the expenditures and the prices are almost impossible to collect. Luxuries – Those countries that exclude the highest income households are effectively excluding those goods and services purchased exclusively by the wealthy. But for all other households covered, judgements are not made about whether certain expenditures are essential or are luxuries, i.e., all expenditures that satisfy all other scope criteria are included. Loyalty schemes, free gifts and other incentives – Following national accounts concepts, the scope of HFCE is actual prices net of reimbursements, subsidies and discounts. Country practice is usually to reflect unconditional reimbursements, discounts and rebates. Loyalty schemes, money-off coupons, free gifts and other incentives are ignored. Free extra product is usually ignored if the effect is temporary but adjusted for if permanent, i.e., a permanent adjustment is treated as a quality change. Download 465.51 Kb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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