Russia's Cosmonauts Inside the Yuri Gagarin Training Center
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cosmonauts in the Soyuz TM simulator at Star City. Back cover (Top) Logo of the Training Centre, which is worn by staff on uniforms and training overalls; A memorial to the first spacewalk on the steps of the House of Cosmonauts; (centre) A cosmonaut wearing an Orlan training suit is lowered into the Hydrotank; (right) A cosmonaut egresses a training capsule while undertaking survival training xxviii List of Illustrations Prologue `Yuri A. Gagarin showed, during training and practice for the flight, a high degree of precision in various experimental psychological tests. He displayed a high degree of immunity under both sudden and loud stimuli. His reactions to `novelties' (weightlessness, long periods of isolation in the anechoic chamber, parachute jumps and others) were always active. . . he was able to control himself in various unexpected situations. . . in practice sessions on the training model [he would] work in a calm and assured manner' ± Our Gagarin, p 138. These skills, along with his strong personality, allowed Yuri Gagarin to become the first person to put into practice months of space flight preparation, to be forever known as the first person to fly into space, on 12 April 1961. Since then, 98 Russian cosmonauts have followed in his footsteps on a variety of missions in Earth orbit, mostly aboard the Soyuz series of spacecraft. The actual flight into space is the very visible phase of a mission that starts with preparations in the gravity environment of Earth, using a variety of facilities and methods that have evolved with the programme over the past four decades. The direct application of this training to activities in space was first used by Russian cosmonauts aboard the Vostok series of spacecraft, at a time when training for a flight into space was in its infancy. Russia and the United States have developed extensive programmes for training their citizens to fly into space over a period of almost five decades. Although many other countries have selected their citizens to fly on either Russian or American missions, and in some cases have developed their own basic and specialist training programmes, the final mission training phase has always been carried out in either the US or Russia, or more recently, both countries. In 1998 a third country, China, developed a space training programme, but it was based on the Russian programme. It supported a domestic manned space flight, but they are still in their infancy compared to the US and Russia and have not yet reached the scale of their training programmes. While the American astronaut training programme has been widely explained, the selection and training of Russian cosmonauts has largely been overlooked. The methodology of training Russians for space flight is the main topic
The logo of the Cosmonaut Training Centre named for Yuri A. Gagarin of this book, but an overview of the overall direction of Russian human space flight and how this differs from that of the United States is worth recording here. As the focal point for the preparation of Russia's cosmonauts, the Cosmonaut Training Centre has evolved to reflect the development of the programme. When the first cosmonauts were selected in 1959/1960 for the Vostok programme, there was no dedicated `centre' for space flight training, but rather a number of locations across a selection of mainly aviation facilities, designed to provide rudimentary training devices until a more central location could be established. This was similar to the American selection of astronauts for the Mercury programme during the same period. As the crew preparation schedules for Mercury and Vostok developed, plans for follow-on missions suggested that a more centralised and specialist crew preparation area would be required. In Russia, the cosmonaut team moved into the new Star City facility near Moscow, which continues to be the main location for cosmonaut training today. The original American `manned spacecraft centre' for astronaut training was located at the Langley Research Center in Virginia from 1959, until the Houston facility opened in 1962. Since then, Houston has been the central location for astronaut training and remains the premier space flight preparation facility in the United States. Established in 1960, the Russian Star City facility became the world's first dedicated space flight training facility, and though both Star City and Houston were aimed at the training of space flight crews, each was operated completely differently, reflecting both the programmes they would support and the nature of the xxx Prologue country they were located in. The Manned Spacecraft Center (MSC, later the Johnson Space Center, or JSC) in Houston had, up to the early 1990s, mostly resembled a university campus, although it was still closed to the general public, except for official and guided tours. A significant increase in security was seen at the time of the Shuttle-Mir programme, and was strengthened in the wake of the 9/11 terrorist incident in 2001. In contrast, Star City has always been part of a functional military base and has always had an effective security system preventing unofficial access. This `closed-base' approach has restricted the flow of information about its history and the operating infrastructure of the facility, even to those who work there. The main focus of NASA astronaut training during the 1960s was the development of techniques for sending Americans to the Moon by the end of the decade, under the Mercury, Gemini and Apollo programmes. There was also a separate core of military astronauts selected to train for classified programmes under the auspices of the USAF (X-20 Dyna Soar space plane; Blue Gemini; the Manned Orbiting Laboratory, or MOL). In Russia also, there was a dual purpose to the training, for Earth orbital and lunar missions (Vostok/Voskhod, Soyuz, Zond) and for military-orientated programmes (Soyuz, Zvezda, Almaz). The training philosophy for both the Americans and Russians was also very different. At NASA, groups of experienced military (later civilian) test or jet pilots were selected, in clear groups, for specific phases of the programme: Mercury in 1959, Gemini and Apollo in 1962 and 1963 and Apollo Applications (post-initial landings) in 1966. Two groups of mainly civilian scientist astronauts were selected in 1965 and 1967, to broaden the research field experience in the astronaut office for the Apollo Applications Program (AAP). In 1969, following the cancellation of the military manned space programme, several former Department of Defense (DoD) astronauts from MOL were transferred to NASA to support the remaining AAP programme (later Skylab). Each of these groups completed a programme of basic academic, wilderness (survival) and systems training, as well as taking a variety of technical assignments to support other missions and programmes, having a hands-on approach to each mission. Over in the Soviet Union, the selection and training of cosmonauts initially fell under the auspices of the Soviet Air Force, with candidates undergoing a series of medicals and evaluations by military, political and administrative committees, who selected a group of candidates for further consideration (though this did not always mean they would start training). This was followed by a period of basic and survival training, after which the candidates took their exams and qualified (or failed) to be awarded a cosmonaut certificate. Experience varied on these selections and their enrolment into the cosmonaut team was dependent upon attrition, programme scheduling and other factors. Some cosmonauts were selected, completed basic training and worked as cosmonauts, but were never assigned to a flight and remained in support roles for years. Unlike the Americans, who were identified publicly on selection, Russian cosmonauts were not normally identified until they were launched into space, making their official role anonymous even to their own family members, particularly for those who never achieved a space flight. In addition to the number of Air Force selections, the Soviets also created a Prologue xxxi `civilian' cosmonaut team by the mid 1960s, mainly comprising engineers of the primary spacecraft design bureau, OKB-1 (headed by Sergey Korolyov). There were also smaller teams created for specific missions or programmes, with varying degrees of success in achieving a space flight. These included scientists, doctors, journalists and representatives of other design bureaus and institutes. Many completed a basic cosmonaut training programme but, except for a handful, they were never called upon to perform more advanced training until selected to train for a flight. Of course, some never received the call for crew assignment and remained a `cosmonaut' in name only. During the 1970s, the American astronaut team chosen for the Mercury±Apollo programmes also supported the Skylab space station and the first `international manned space flight', the joint US/USSR docking mission designated the Apollo- Soyuz Test Project (ASTP). This flight reflected a time of change in both programmes and a willingness to exchange data and experiences, more for national objectives than international relations. Prior to Soviet involvement in ASTP, the facilities at the training centre were already being expanded to accommodate the change of direction towards long duration space station missions. All indications of a Soviet manned lunar programme were hidden for another two decades. While the training cycle for the Apollo missions was revealed in some detail during the 1960s and early 1970s, those for the Russian lunar programme of the same period have never been clearly defined. There was obviously some training conducted for the flight to and from the Moon, possibly including the lunar orbital phases of the mission, and some simulations of surface activities were presumably performed, at least in the early stages of EVA development. With the demise of the American Apollo programme in the early 1970s, the training simulators were mothballed and replaced with a new suite of simulators and training schedules to reflect the introduction of the Space Shuttle. The new intake of astronauts in 1978 was the first of a fairly regular intake over the next twenty years, for crew members to fly the Shuttle (Pilots) and those who would conduct space walks and operate equipment peculiar to each mission (Mission Specialists). The Russians were also developing a Space Shuttle programme, called Buran, but relied on experienced test pilots (civilian and military) to provide potential crew members. Unfortunately, although test flights in the atmosphere and a single unmanned orbital flight were completed, no manned orbital missions were mounted, even though several were planned and some Buran pilots were assigned to short Soyuz space flights to gain experience prior to flying a Buran in space. The change to long duration space station missions created new training procedures for the cosmonaut team, both for long duration residencies and short visiting missions. A scientifically-orientated civilian space station programme (Salyuts 1, 4, 6 and 7) was operated between 1971 and 1986, and a classified military space station programme (Almaz ± Salyuts 3 and 5) was mounted between 1972 and 1977. From 1986 until 2001, the highly successful Mir space complex represented the peak of Russian/Soviet manned space flight, creating a host of records in space flight endurance and regular space operations. Since the 1980s, the selection of new cosmonauts to crew these missions has slowed, reflecting a changing programme, longer-lasting space stations, reduced funding and political upheavals. xxxii Prologue Despite this, and at a time of great change of priorities in Russia, the honour of holding the title `Cosmonaut' remains high, though perhaps not as high as in the days of Yuri Gagarin. The assignment of potential crew members to the American or Soviet programmes differed greatly right from the start. In the US, a system was devised for Mercury in which a back-up crew member supported a primary crew member, then rotated to fly a subsequent mission. This was refined for Gemini and Apollo (under the direction of the Director of Flight Crew Operations, and former astronaut, Deke Slayton), so that a flight crew occupied the primary position and their back-up crew skipped the next two missions but flew the third. A back-up crew or single crew member could replace a grounded prime crew member if called upon to do so. From Apollo, a third, support crew was assigned to represent the prime crew in meetings and visits. This system changed with the Shuttle programme, once the test flights had been completed. Here, a prime crew was selected based upon experience, the mission and availability, with relatively few back-up crew members assigned. A displaced prime crew member would merely be replaced from the pool of experienced astronauts. In contrast, right from the early 1960s, the Soviets formed a small group of cosmonauts from the larger training corps, creating a `training group of immediate preparedness' from which the prime and back-up crews were formed, each training together in a two- or three-person unit. If called upon, the whole back- up crew could (and sometimes did) replace the whole prime crew. A third crew would also be assigned to provide additional support and they could rotate to a later back- up or prime position if required. This system continued through to the end of the Mir programme in 2001 and elements of it remain today. In 1975, ASTP afforded both countries the opportunity to experience each other's training regimes at that time. Though space station missions were considered (Soyuz/ Skylab or Apollo/Salyut docking), these were not pursued and no training sessions were completed. The success of ASTP and the prospect of the Americans flying international astronauts as one-flight specialists on the US Shuttle led the Soviets to offer flights to Salyut stations to members of the Eastern Bloc, then to other international `partners'. As a result, an abbreviated cosmonaut training programme was devised to incorporate these `non-career' cosmonauts, some of which included long duration and EVA training. In the early 1990s, the introduction of the joint US/Russian Shuttle-Mir programme in preparation for the International Space Station allowed American astronauts to train for long duration assignments on main Mir crews. Following the 1992/1993 agreements between Russia and the International Partners who were developing the Freedom Space Station (USA, ESA, Canada, Japan and Brazil), the new partners developed what has become known as the International Space Station (ISS). As a result, the new ISS crew training cycle has necessitated a reassessment of Russian cosmonaut training to reflect visits to US, Canadian and European (and eventually Japanese) training facilities and mastering the English language. It has also led to commercial marketing of the spare seats on the Soyuz in order to secure much needed funding, and to try to retain some national pride now that there is no longer a Russian national space station programme. Prologue xxxiii With the announcement in 2004 that the US Shuttle was to be retired and replaced with what has been termed the Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV, designed to return astronauts to the Moon as well as re-supplying the ISS), the American programme has also to undergo significant changes, and as part of this process, the selection of astronauts and their training is under review. Meanwhile in Russia, although there are plans to create a Soyuz replacement (Klipper), the basic cosmonaut training programme and crew assignment methodology continues to focus on this highly successful and reliable spacecraft and on ISS systems and procedures. Furthermore, the basic cosmonaut training programme for these missions continues to operate essentially unchanged, apart from its more international slant, since the early 1960s, basically because it has proven to be adaptable and highly successful. Training philosophy in the US prior to ISS reflected the short mission durations (up to three weeks) flown between 1961 and 2001, with intensive training for a minutely detailed time line. The only long missions Americans had flown prior to 1995 were the three Skylab missions, where such a detailed time line proved to be unworkable and problematic. In Russia, where long duration missions have been pursued since 1970, repetitive training has allowed for more relaxed preparation to long missions, giving better flexibility in dealing with real-time situations. Central to this programme of space flight preparation remains the Cosmonaut Training Centre named for Yuri Gagarin (TsPK) that has also been the home of cosmonauts for over four decades. The story of how this specialised and largely unknown training centre evolved to become the leading facility for extended duration space flight and regular space station operations over the past four decades is also the story behind the achievements of all of Russia's cosmonauts since Yuri Gagarin began the journey. xxxiv Prologue The Cosmonaut Training Centre: birth and growth Soon after the government decision of 11 January 1960 to create a centre for training cosmonauts, a commission that included the head of cosmonaut training, General Nikolay Kamanin, began searching for a suitable site for the new centre, which was planned to become not just the central location for the training of Soviet cosmonauts, but also the place they would live. FINDING A LOCATION The commission had set a number of criteria that the site had to meet in order to be selected. It had to be in reasonable proximity to Moscow, with an air base nearby, and both a railway and roads had to be available. 1 However, the site still had to be remote enough to keep curious outsiders away. Finally, it had been decided that it would have to be a pleasant place for the cosmonauts and trainers to live, so a location would be selected that was out in the woods, away from Moscow's city atmosphere. Eventually, the ideal place was found, in a forest in the Shchelkovo region, some forty kilometres north-east of Moscow. It was only a few kilometres from the Chkalovskiy Air Base, the largest military airfield in the Soviet Union, and near the railroad between Moscow and Monino. It was also conveniently located only a short distance from Sergey Korolyov's OKB-1 design bureau in Kaliningrad and Vladimir Chelomey's OKB-52 in the town of Reutov. The fact that the Air Force academy was situated in nearby Monino was considered a bonus. Another factor in this site's favour was that the land was already home to a military installation. In the late 1930s it had been the site of a radio range, and a few small buildings had been built at that time. One of these (built in 1938) has survived and is now being used as a garage for buses from the TsPK motor pool. TsPK's first buildings Construction of other buildings and facilities started in 1960 and by the following year, the first new building was completed. The Headquarters and Staff Building was a two-storey office structure that was big enough to house the centre's entire staff, including the cosmonaut detachment. In 1962, a second building was constructed, which now houses the TsPK technical library, and in 1964, a new wing was added to the staff building, containing a gymnasium and other facilities.
The main entrance to the Headquarters and Staff Building. Either side of the door are reliefs honouring Yuri Gagarin and Sergey Korolyov. The Order of Lenin and the Order of Friendship of Peoples can be seen next to the name of the centre Another new complex built was a barracks for the soldiers serving in Unit 26266, as the Cosmonaut Training Centre was officially known. Right next to that was the first medical department, which in the 1960s and early 1970s also acted as the profilactorium (the facility in which crews re-adapted to gravity after space flights) and where they were debriefed. This function was later taken over by the Profilactorium that is still in use today. Once the switch had been made, the old facility became a policlinic and pharmacy. The simulator building It was also in 1964 that the first structure that was meant to house simulators was built, dubbed `Korpus D'. Up to that point, mission training had taken place at Sergey Korolyov's design bureau OKB-1 in Kaliningrad. In fact, in the 1960s, there would be only a few simulators in TsPK and there was a constant struggle between Korolyov's design bureau and the Air Force over who should be in charge of crew training and where this training was to take place. This was finally resolved in the early 1970s, but the conflict had an effect on the development of TsPK and on the Soviet space programme as a whole, which suffered delays and setbacks because of the rivalry between the Air Force and the design bureaus, all of whom wanted to have a decisive role in the planning and preparation of manned space flight. This went so far that the design bureaus were not even willing to 2 The Cosmonaut Training Centre: birth and growth
Vostok back-up cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov entering a Vostok simulator supply TsPK with the necessary simulator technology to get crews trained for missions. Another aspect that had a negative influence on the early years of the Soviet programme was the ad-hoc style in which missions were planned. It seemed that there was no long-term vision and this was reflected in the decisions that were made Download 3.5 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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