Russia's Cosmonauts Inside the Yuri Gagarin Training Center
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17 In the meantime, the old Soyuz spacecraft was being replaced by the first modification, Soyuz T. In order to prepare the crews, a new simulator called TDK- 7ST was built by SOKB-LII and delivered to the Cosmonaut Training Centre in 1979. As well as this new Soyuz simulator, a second and third one were ordered from OKTB Orbita in Novocherkassk. Called `Don-732' (it must be noted that while all official publications speak of `Don-732', the simulator itself had `Don-732M' painted on it until at least 2001. In 2003, this had been replaced by `Don-Soyuz- TM'), the first of these simulators was specially built to have cosmonauts train for both automatic and manual approach and docking of the Soyuz T with the Salyut station. The other one was named `Pilot-732' and was a specialised dynamic 40 Simulators A view of Korpus 1, around 1980. Behind the Soyuz simulator in the foreground is the Salyut 6 simulator simulator to train for manually controlled re-entry on the basis of the TsF-7 centrifuge profile. Buran Buran, the Soviet Space Shuttle programme, called for a new range of simulators and the facilities to house them. Training of the cosmonauts for orbital flights would take place in TsPK, but unlike previous programmes, Buran also called for specific flight training for the approach and landing phases of missions. The test programme for these phases was carried out under the direction of the Ministry of Aviation Industry's Flight Research Centre (MAP-LII) in the city of Zhukovskiy, east of Moscow.
In 1977, a group of test pilots was selected and underwent basic cosmonaut training in TsPK. Four of them later performed approach and landing tests on a Soyuz and Salyut 41
The Don-732M simulator Buran analogue called BTS-2. Training for these tests took place in a Buran simulator that was located at NPO Molniya, the prime contractor for Buran. This simulator, called PDST, was built by SOKB-LII's successor, NII-AO (Scientific Research Institute for Aviation Equipment). The pilots were also able to train on a Tupolev Tu-154 aircraft that was specially modified to be able to fly Buran descent patterns. According to NII-AO information, they built two more Buran simulators; TDK- F35 and PDST2. These were used from 1982 to 1991 and from 1987 until 1990 respectively 3 and were situated in the KTOK in TsPK. Up to the present day however, there remain three Buran simulators in the KTOK. Who built the third one is unclear. KTOK was large enough to house a full-scale mock-up of the Buran orbiter, but that was never delivered. In addition, construction of a separate building was begun, for training crews to work with Buran's manipulator system and for training on an orbiter that could be placed in a vertical position. But this training hardware also was never delivered because of the cancellation of the Buran programme and the building was never finished. Soyuz modifications Soyuz T 15 was the last flight of Soyuz T. In 1986, the Soviets moved to a new modification of the Soyuz spacecraft called Soyuz TM. A new simulator, designated TDK-7ST2, was therefore set up in Korpus 1A, built by NII-AO in close 42 Simulators
The TDK-7ST simulator being converted to the Soyuz TMA configuration, in 1998 cooperation with engineers from TsPK's simulator department. Commissioned on 4 April 1986, the first training session on TDK-7ST2 was conducted by Vladimir Titov and Aleksandr Serebrov, who at that time were scheduled to fly a long duration mission to the Mir station. When Soyuz T was phased out, the Don-732 simulator became obsolete, and OKTB Orbita was given the task of modifying it to Soyuz TM configuration. After the reconfiguration, it was renamed Don-Soyuz-TM. Since Soyuz TM served as the Soviet/Russian crew transportation ship from 1987 until the last in the series, Soyuz TM 34, returned to Earth on 10 November 2002, TDK-7ST2 was used very frequently. On 14 February 2002, the 4,000th training run was performed by the ISS-6 back-up crew at the time, Salizhan Sharipov, Carlos Noriega and Don Pettit. By that time however, it was reportedly becoming problematic to get spare parts for the simulator, as these were no longer being produced. 1 Soyuz and Salyut 43 The Soyuz TM simulator TDK-7TS2 A new player in the field In November 1993, a new company was founded to build simulators for cosmonaut training. Its name was `Tsentra Trenazhorostroyeniya' or TsT (Centre for Simulator Building). Two months later, it opened an affiliate in Novocherkassk, into which the OKTB Orbita was incorporated. Orbita had been building simulators for a number of years and had been the prime contractor for Don-732, Don-Soyuz-TM and Don-17K. THE MIR PROGRAMME On 20 February 1986, the Mir station was launched from Baykonur. While the transition of training from Salyut 6 to Salyut 7 had been fairly easy since both stations were almost identical, Mir was a new generation space station, which called for new simulators. 44 Simulators
Control console for the TDK-7ST2 simulator The Mir training hall in 2003. In the background is the Vykhod 2 EVA training device The Mir programme 45
Initially, it was possible to place the simulator for the Mir base block, called Don- 17KS, in Korpus 1 of the Engineering and Simulator Building, next to the Salyut simulator. When the first add-on module, `Kvant', was planned, its simulator (Don- 37KE) was attached to the Mir without much problem. However, the modules following Kvant were so large that the Salyut simulator had to be removed in order to make room. The first was Don-77KSD, the simulator of the `Kvant-2' module. It was followed by Don-77KST (`Kristall'). In 1995 and 1996, two more modules were added to the Mir complex; Spektr and Priroda. Simulators for these modules were put up in TsPK, but there was no more room available in the Engineering and Simulator Building. Korpus 1, the hall which contained the Mir, Kvant, Kvant-2, Kristall and TORU simulators, was filled to capacity, so a new location was found in the KTOK. Even with the three Buran simulators already in situ, there was more than enough room left, so it became the home for Don-77KSO (Spektr) and `Navazhdeniye' (Priroda). As well as these large simulators, TsT also built Don-GP (Glavnyy Post), a special trainer for operating the main control post of the Mir base block. A further simulator, called `Teleoperator' but better known as `TORU', was set up in Korpus 1 of the Engineering and Simulator Building. It was a replica of the remote control station on board Mir, and was used to train crews in controlling the approach and docking of unmanned Progress supply ships. After the Mir programme had ended, it looked as if Korpus 1 was destined to become an extension of the TsPK museum. Training activities had been replaced by tour groups and official guests to TsPK being shown around the Mir modules. But in 2001, construction of a new training device began. Called `Vykhod 2' (Exit 2), this The Don-77KSO ('Spektr') simulator in the KTOK, October 1999. Barely visible behind it is the 'Priroda' simulator, 'Navazhdeniye' 46 Simulators
The `Teleoperator', or TORU trainer in Korpus 1. Later, Vykhod 2 was set up in the open space in front of TORU structure could be used by cosmonauts wearing Orlan EVA suits to practice egress and ingress to the International Space Station. After it was finished in 2003, walls were put up between Vykhod 2 and the Mir complex, to ensure that cosmonauts could train in peace and quiet while tour groups were walking around the Mir complex only metres away. Vykhod 2 was built by engineers from TsPK's Experimental Plant in cooperation with TsT. Since TsT describes this trainer as an upgrade, it seems that it was an upgrade of Vykhod 1. 21 The International Space Station By this point, the Russians were preparing for the ISS programme as well. Plans called for the first two modules to be Russian; the Functional Cargo Block `Zarya' and the Service Module `Zvezda'. An order to build simulators of both modules went out to two prime contractors, TsT in Moscow and NII-AO. Development took place in close cooperation with RKK Energiya and Khrunichev, the prime contractor for both modules. In the night of 3±4 March 1998, the Zarya simulator was moved from Khrunichev's plant in Moscow to TsPK. On 17 July 1998, it was followed by Zvezda. Both were placed in the KTOK, next to Spektr and Priroda. It seems that both were delivered in a half-finished state, since the final outfitting of the simulators took place in TsPK between mid-1998 and early 1999. 17 Plans for simulators of the Universal Docking Module (which was to be delivered in 1999) and for the Science Power Platform did not materialise. Both the Zarya and the Zvezda simulators were first used on 23 August 1999, by the ISS-1 prime and back-up crews. Since all ISS Expedition crews, Soyuz `Taxi' The Mir programme 47
crews, and Space Shuttle crews train on them, it wasn't long before the 1,000th training session took place, on 12 February 2002. Shortly after the International Space Station had become operational, the Russians began using a new transport craft, Soyuz TMA. Of course, a new simulator was needed to practice operating this new Soyuz modification, so the old STK-7ST simulator was modified from the Soyuz T layout to that of the Soyuz TMA. Work began in 1998, but it was not deemed necessary to move the simulator. Reconfiguration was carried out in Korpus 1A and when it was finished, the simulator was renamed TDK-7ST3. The first training session was conducted on 28 August 2001 by NASA astronaut Don Pettit. During the transition from Soyuz TM to Soyuz TMA, a TMA Descent Module was `incorporated' into the Don-Soyuz-TM simulator, enabling both the last Soyuz TM crews and the first Soyuz TMA crews to train for manual dockings. The Russians now had one Orbital Module and two Descent Module simulators next to each other. The first training on the TMA Descent Module was conducted by ISS-5 crew members Valeriy Korzun and Sergey Treshchev on 5 March 2002. While Pilot-732 was used to train crews for manually controlled re-entry based on the TsF-7 profile, a new simulator was ordered for similar training based on the TsF- 18 profile. Although it is not clear where this new simulator is located, it was reported in 2001 that it was being tested. 22 At present (2005), the TDK-7ST3 is the standard Soyuz simulator that is being used to train the crews for ISS. But developments are on-going and yet another new Soyuz modification (called Soyuz TMM) is being developed by RKK Energiya, although its status is unclear. However, should that craft become operational, a Control consoles for the Pilot-732 and Don-Soyuz-TM simulators 48 Simulators
Pilot-732 is used for practicing approach and manual docking An overview of Korpus 1A. Don-Soyuz-TM can be seen in the foreground, with Pilot- 732 to its right. The Don-7ST3 (Soyuz TMA) simulator is visible in the background The Mir programme 49 simulator will be needed, and there are already plans to convert the now unused Soyuz TM simulator TDK-7ST2 for that purpose. Once the conversion has been completed, it will be renamed TDK-7ST4. 1 OTHER SIMULATORS AND MEANS OF TRAINING Besides these large simulators, TsPK also has a number of smaller ones that were meant for training on specific aspects of Soyuz, Salyut, Mir and ISS. Built by the centre's own simulator department, these were: . Oka-ARS, to train for manually controlled approach of Soyuz craft . Yenisey, to train for operating the Soyuz motion control system . Prichal, for practicing docking of Soyuz with DOS/Salyut orbital stations . Don-ERA, to train for operating the European Robot Arm (ERA), the ISS manipulator arm . SPK-Don-21, the purpose of which is unclear, but since SPK is the Russian Manned Manoeuvring Unit, this may have been its training device . Besides the Hydrolaboratory, the Ilyushins and Vykhod 2, cosmonauts have used the TBK-50 thermal and vacuum chamber which is situated in the space suit design bureau, NPO `Zvezda', in the town of Tomilino. Here, specific EVA tasks have been practiced in simulated space conditions. . The training centre also maintains a simulator at the Baykonur Cosmodrome's administrative-technical complex. Built in 1980 by OKTB Orbita, this specialised simulator was called `Bivni' (`Tusk'). Its purpose was to allow cosmonauts to maintain their skills in manually docking their Soyuz ferry craft, similar to the Don-Soyuz-TM simulator in TsPK. Bivni was later upgraded twice, the modifications being known as Bivni-2 and Bivni-3, in all probability for Soyuz TM and Soyuz TMA. Parabolic flights Like NASA in the USA and ESA in western Europe, the Russians use aircraft flying parabolas in order to let cosmonauts train for specific tasks during short periods of zero-gravity. (This is now more correctly referred to as microgravity, but the term zero-gravity remains the more familiar and is used throughout this book.) In the 1960s, a Tupolev Tu-104 was used. This plane was operated by the Gromov Flight Research Institute in Zhukovskiy rather than TsPK. Later, the Ilyushin Il-76 would become the standard plane for these flights and three such planes were added to the fleet of the Seryogin Regiment. Their cabins were modified, with the walls, floors and ceilings being padded to prevent injuries. The planes were designated Il-76MDK and were used to familiarise cosmonauts with zero-g, to train them in moving around in that environment, to don and doff space suits, and to handle large masses. The Il- 76s are the largest planes in the world that are used for this kind of training. The cabin measures 14.18 metres long, 3.45 metres wide and 3.40 metres high. The crew usually consists of three pilots, two flight engineers, and eight instructors, who assist 50 Simulators Training photo of the 1970 group in a parabolic aircraft test. The people in the picture are (from the left) unknown, Leonid Popov, Nikolay Fefelov and Vladimir Kozlov Yuri Gagarin (right) observes Test-Parachutist V.I. Golovin during a training session in the Tupolev Tu-104LL. Golovin is seated in a Vostok ejection seat. On the left is Leading-Specialist L.M. Kitayev-Smyk 51
a total of twelve cosmonauts or other test subjects. A flight will usually last between an hour and a half and two hours, during which ten to twenty parabolas are performed. Each parabola will result in between 25 and 30 seconds of zero-g. The plane goes into a dive, developing a speed of 620 kilometres per hour. It then goes into an ascending curve until it reaches an altitude of 7200 metres, when the crew sets the controls to idle and the craft continues to move through inertia along a path resembling a Kepler parabola, during which weightlessness occurs. The aircraft's speed drops to 420 kilometres per hour on the descending branch of the trajectory and the aircraft moves along the curve in horizontal flight. They repeat the cycle every three or four minutes and usually fly ten cycles at a time, but they can do more, depending on the mission to be flown. 23 Earth Observation A Tupolev Tu-154 has been modified for specialised observation to train cosmonauts in space navigation and Earth observation of ground- and sea-based objects. They also test space equipment on the aircraft, which is also based at Chkalovskiy and operated by the Seryogin Regiment. EVA TRAINING FACILITIES Four years after Yuri Gagarin blazed the trail into space, having called upon more than a year of specialised training, another Soviet cosmonaut, Aleksey Leonov, created history by becoming the first person to venture outside a spacecraft in orbit and walk in space. This new activity required much more specialised preparation ± trying to reproduce the effects of zero-gravity while still firmly within the grasp of Earth's gravity. For many years, the Soviets (and the Americans) had studied the possibility of crews working in open space, on the Moon and, eventually, even on Mars. This would all require the development of new equipment and the procedures to support them, as well as techniques to allow potential space walkers to practice their activities on Earth. Both the Soviets and the Americans followed similar paths to prepare their crews for what is officially termed Extra Vehicular Activity (EVA) and more commonly known as spacewalking. 24 Simulating spacewalking One of the most effective and sustainable methods of EVA training is to use a large tank of water. Elements of space hardware can be submerged in the tank and test subjects (suitably weighted) can conduct simulated EVA operations. At TsPK, there has been a huge facility available for EVA training for over 25 years and this has allowed cosmonauts to perform regular training sessions over the evolving space station programme. In addition, there are the two Vykhod facilities that cater for 1-g and suspended gravity simulations of procedures and techniques. Combining this with other 1-g facilities for ground run-throughs, the parabolic aircraft flights and sessions in altitude chambers at TsPK, Zvezda and elsewhere, the Russians have been able to train for and complete an impressive log of over 100 52 Simulators
During a short period of zero-g on board an Ilyushin Il-76MDK, a cosmonaut practices egress from the Mir space station while wearing the UPMK manned manoeuvring unit EVAs, gathering a wealth of experience in long-term EVA operations from space complexes. Hydrolab (underwater EVA training) Facility As the emphasis of the Soviet manned space programme shifted from the delayed lunar programme to the development of the long duration space stations in the late 1960s, it became apparent that it would also be possible to perform spacewalks from the stations more frequently than from any previous Soviet manned spacecraft. A suitable, dedicated training facility had to be provided to support such an increased EVA training programme. The current EVA facility, called the Hydrolab, was completed in the early 1980s and features a huge, 23-metre diameter, 12-metre deep water tank filled with 5,000 litres of water maintained at a temperature of around 308C.
25 Large lamps floodlight the inside of the pool when required and once every 12±18 months, the water is emptied out and the whole facility is cleaned and maintained. The Hydrolab has been in use since the early 1980s and has supported the EVA training of Salyut 6, Salyut 7, Mir and ISS crews since then. Using an overhead crane system, full-size mock-ups of the Salyut station, modules of the Mir space complex and, more recently, the Russian elements of the ISS, can be fixed on a support frame at the base of the tank for simulated EVA operations. The Hydrolab facility is managed by the Survival Department, whose current Head is former cosmonaut EVA training facilities 53
A training session by cosmonauts Yuri Romanenko and Georgiy Grechko in the old EVA training facility in TsPK, in 1977. From 1980 onwards, EVA training would be conducted in the new Hydrolaboratory Colonel Yuri Gidzenko. He recently took over from Nikolay Grekov, another former cosmonaut, and Gidzenko is also responsible for both the centrifuge and survival training. The Hydrolab has its own staff of specialists, divers and technicians. Operationally, a safety and support team of six or seven scuba divers works in the tank, assisting the crew as they follow their test programme. The EVA-suited test subjects descend into the tank by means of a crane, as they are too cumbersome to enter the water themselves. Their activities are recorded by two diver/cameramen, who document their progress as the test proceeds. These films and photos are used for post-simulation evaluation, or are sent up to a resident crew on a station for on- orbit training for new EVA procedures or operations. This has been done on a number of occasions where emergencies have occurred in orbit. The test crew uses specially adapted suits for underwater work, which have umbilical connections through a mock-up backpack. Weights can be inserted into pockets at the wrist, waist, chest, ankle or back of the suit as required to suspend the test subject at different depths in the tank for the simulated EVA operation that is being performed. The test is monitored by a team of specialists from locations around the exterior of the pool, using view ports to look into the tank. A central control panel is located about halfway down the side of the tank and includes stations for the test conductor, a chief doctor, and an EVA specialist. This team controls the pace and progress of the test being conducted and monitors the parameters of the EVA suits, the medical condition of the cosmonauts, and general safety requirements. 54 Simulators An EVA simulation begins with a briefing for the crew in the conference room located on the second floor of the facility. Here, the principles of the hardware and Download 3.5 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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