Science teachers' conceptions of teaching and learning, ict efficacy, ict professional development and ict practices enacted in their classrooms
part in the study. The seniority level mean result of the teachers
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part in the study. The seniority level mean result of the teachers was 14.34 years (SD ¼ 10.03). The most frequent age category re- ported by the participants was 31 e35 years (20.8%). With regard to educational attainment, 70.7% reported having a bachelor's degree, 26.8% a master's degree, 1% Ph.D. degree, and 1.5% who chose not to answer. The distribution of the teachers with relation to the cultural characteristic of their schools was: 18.7% Jewish schools, 20.1% Muslim schools, 16.1% Christian schools, 37.5% mixed (Arab and Jewish) schools, and 7.6% Druze schools. 2.2. Instrumentation The Teaching and Learning Conceptions questionnaire (TLCQ).This scale was developed by Chan and Elliott (2004) , based on a litera- ture review of prevailing conceptions of teaching and learning, and dialogues with Hong Kong students before teaching practice. The scale measures two different conceptions of the teaching/learning nexus: traditional and constructivist. Based on the original study's factor loading results, indicators with factor loadings lower than 0.40 ( Byrne, 2010 ) were not selected for the current study to create a more valid and reliable assessment of the factor, thus only eight items were included in the traditional measurement. The following are example items that were included in this questionnaire: “A teacher's major task is to give students knowledge/information, assign them drill and practice, and test their recall ”; “During the lesson, it is important to keep students con fined to the textbooks and the desks ". Following the same procedure, the constructivist questionnaire included 11 items, such as: “It is important that a teacher un- derstands the feelings of the students ”; “Good teachers always encourage students to think for answers themselves ”. The scaling of this instrument was a 5-point Likert-style format ranging from 1 ¼ strongly disagree to 5 ¼ strongly agree. A principal component analysis followed by a Varimax rotation was used to corroborate the stability of the TLCQ structure (eigen- value > 1.00; item loadings > 0.40). The analysis solution accounted for 51.07% of the variance and yielded two categories: traditional (eight items, a ¼ 0.834), and constructivist (11 items, a ¼ 0.910), conceptions. Teachers' Sense of Ef ficacy scale (short form). This scale was designed by Tschannen-Moran and Woolfolk-Hoy (2001) to determine teachers' sense of ef ficacy along three sub-scales each includes four items: Ef ficacy in Student Engagement (e.g., “How much can you do to motivate students who show low interest in schoolwork ”); Efficacy in Instructional Strategies (e.g., “To what extent can you use a variety of assessment strategies ”); and Effi- cacy in Classroom Management (e.g., "How much can you do to control disruptive behavior in the classroom ”). All the scale items were subjected to a principal component analysis followed by a Varimax rotation with an eigenvalue >1.00 as a criterion for determining the number of factors. The analysis resulted in three factors, which accounted together for 60.82% of the variance. Three items loaded ( >0.40) on the efficacy in student engagement factor ( a ¼ 0.74, one item (T11) was excluded due to a low loading result); the ef ficacy in instructional strategies factor included four items ( a ¼ 0.76); and the efficacy in classroom management factor had four related indicators ( a ¼ 0.72). The scaling of this instru- ment was a 5-point Likert-style format ranging from 1 ¼ not at all to 5 ¼ very much. Teachers' ICT Ef ficacy. This five-item scale was designed by Vanderlinde and van Braak (2010) to measure teachers' concep- tions of their competencies and abilities to use ICT in their classrooms. The teachers were asked to report their level of agreement with the statements such as: “I have sufficient technical knowledge and skills to use ICT in my classroom ” by using a 5-point Likert-style format ranging from 1 ¼ strongly disagree to 5 ¼ strongly agree. One item was excluded in order to increase the Cronbach's alpha reliability result ( a ¼ 0.82). ICT-Supported Activities in the Classroom. This 9-item scale was speci fically designed for the purposes of the current study and was based on the new curriculum of science education in Israel ( CASTE, 2007 ). The teachers were given a list of activities that might cultivate scienti fic skills and thus recommended by the formal teacher's guide for science education in primary and sec- ondary schools. The teachers were asked to report the extent to which ICT was used in their classrooms to support the activities delineated below: 1. Accessing verbal and visual texts with graphical organizers, rhetorical and typographic means 2. Preparing learning product (such as reports, graphic organizers, models and displays, simulation games, presentations, and posters) 3. Planning research processes (identi fication and formulation of research goals, hypotheses, experiments, and observations) 4. Collecting and processing data, and drawing conclusions 5. Designing possible solutions 6. Assessing different solutions 7. Executing and evaluating a chosen solution 8. Managing group project work 9. Regulating the learning process The participants were asked to report the extent to which they used these activities in their classrooms on a five-point Likert scale of 1 ¼ almost never to 5 ¼ almost always ( a ¼ 0.933). ICT Teachers' Professional Development Scale. This 4-item scale ( Vanderlinde & van Braak, 2010 ) was designed to assess teacher engagement in professional development activities related to ICT integration into the curriculum. The teachers were asked to report their level of agreement with the statements: “I attend frequently in-service teacher training about the educational use of ICT ”; “I try to keep informed about everything that has to do with ICT in education ”; “I take initiative to learn about every- thing that has to do with ICT in education ”; and “I attend frequently technical ICT in-service teacher training courses ”. A 5- point Likert-style format was used ranging from 1 ¼ completely disagree to 5 ¼ completely agree ( a ¼ 0.84). It should be noted that in-service science teacher training programs in Israel are pro- vided by The Ministry of Education. These programs take place in national centers for professional development for teachers in science and technology. These programs' main goal is to raise the quality and level of teaching in the fields of science and tech- nology and to improve the teacher's skills of teaching and working in a digital environment. Those centers are equipped with laboratory equipment and state-of-the-art teaching acces- sories, computers and communications, which enable high- quality courses (e.g., The National Center for the Professional Development of Teachers in Science and Technology in Northern Israel, 2017 ). 2.3. Data analysis Data were analyzed by using Partial Least Squares - Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM; Hair, Hult, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2017 ), advised to be applied if the primary objective of applying structural equation modeling is prediction of target constructs. SmartPLS 3 software was used. D. Alt / Teaching and Teacher Education 73 (2018) 141 e150 144 3. Results 3.1. Descriptive statistics Table 1 displays the descriptive statistics of the research con- structs and indicators. Following the general guidelines for skew- ness and kurtosis (suggesting that if the number is greater than þ 1 or lower than 1, then the distribution is skewed, flat or peaked). The construct distributions can be generally considered normal. In order to assess the participants' traditional versus construc- tivist conceptions (H1), a repeated measures analysis of variance was used. Results showed that the participants tend to possess more constructivist than traditional conceptions (mean results and SD values are provided in Table 1 ). These differences were found statistically signi ficant (F (1, 302) ¼ 153.32 p < .001, h p 2 ¼ 0.34). H1 was con firmed. In order to assess H2 and H3, Model 2 ( Fig. 2 ) was constructed. This path model includes five constructs, represented in the model as cycles: Constructivist Conceptions, Traditional Conceptions, and the three sub-constructs of the Teachers' Sense of Ef ficacy scale: Ef ficacy in Student Engagement, Efficacy in Instructional Strategies, and Ef ficacy in Classroom Management. The indicators are the directly measured proxy variables, represented as rectangles. Re- lationships between the constructs as well as between the con- structs and their assigned indicators are shown as arrows. The PLS- SEM analysis used path weighting scheme and a mean value replacement for missing values. Based on the theoretical model, paths were speci fied from Constructivist Conceptions and Tradi- tional Conceptions to the Teachers' Sense of Ef ficacy sub-scales. One indicator of the Traditional Conceptions latent construct was omitted from the model due to a low loading result <0.40 ( Hair et al., 2017 ). Table 2 presents the analysis results of the direct effects (see results for Model 2). The results show that Constructivist Concep- tions exerts moderate and signi ficant effects on the Teachers' Sense of Ef ficacy sub-factors; the highest result was found for the path associated with the ef ficacy in Instructional Strategies construct. Merely small signi ficant coefficient results were indicated for the Traditional Conceptions, the highest result was found for the path linking this construct to Ef ficacy in Classroom Management. The model evaluation included the following steps. First, collinearity was examined by Variance In flation Factor (VIF) values of all sets of predictor constructs in the structural model. The re- sults showed that the VIF values of all combinations of endogenous and exogenous constructs are below the threshold of 5 ( Hair et al., 2017 ) and equal to 1.067. Therefore, collinearity among the pre- dictor constructs is not a critical issue in this structural model. Next, the coef ficient of determination (R 2 ) value was examined. R 2 values for the endogenous factors ranged from 0.344 to 0.368 these values can be considered moderate, when R 2 values of 0.75, 0.50, or 0.25 for endogenous latent variables can be respectively described as substantial, moderate, or weak ( Hair et al., 2017 ). In addition to measuring the R 2 values, the change in the R 2 value when a speci fied exogenous construct is omitted from the model should be used to evaluate its impact on the endogenous con- structs. This measure is referred to as the f 2 effect size when values of 0.02, 0.15, and 0.35, respectively, represent small, medium, and large effect ( Cohen, 1988 ). According to the results, Traditional Conceptions had small effect sizes (0.010 e0.026) on Teachers' sense of Ef ficacy sub-constructs. The Constructivist Conceptions construct had high effect sizes of 0.413 e0.489 on the endogenous latent variables. Lastly, the blindfolding procedure was used to assess the predictive relevance (Q 2 ) of the path model. Values larger than 0 suggest that the model has predictive relevance for a certain endogenous construct ( Hair et al., 2017 ). The Q 2 value of the Teachers' Sense of Ef ficacy constructs ranges from 0.175 to 0.214. According to the results, H2 was not con firmed, as inverse con- nections were not shown between teachers' conceptions of tradi- tional teaching and learning and their sense of ef ficacy in science classrooms, whereas H3 was fully supported. Model 3 ( Fig. 3 ) was constructed to check H4 and H5. This model also addressed the results provided in Model 2. Therefore, paths were speci fied from the Constructivist Conceptions to the Teachers' Sense of Ef ficacy latent construct. In order to create a more parsi- monious model, the three sub-factors of the Teachers' Sense of Ef ficacy scale were entered into the model as indicators. It should also be noted that given the small effect sizes (0.010 e0.026) on Teachers' sense of Ef ficacy sub-constructs, Traditional Conceptions was not included in this model (Model 3) and the following one (Model 4). Moreover, in line with H4 and H5, another path was speci fied between Teachers' Sense of Efficacy and Teachers' ICT Ef ficacy and between the latter and ICT Supported Activities in the Classroom. A bootstrap routine was used to detect direct and indirect sig- ni ficant path coefficient results. Table 2 displays the analysis results of the direct and indirect effects for Model 3. The results showed a signi ficant high coefficient result between Constructivist Concep- tions and Teachers' Sense of Ef ficacy, a moderate result between Teachers' Sense of Ef ficacy and Teachers' ICT Efficacy, and a low indirect effect between Constructivist Conceptions and Teachers' ICT Ef ficacy via Teachers' Sense of Efficacy. Other path coefficient results were found very low, and a non-signi ficant direct effect was found between Constructivist Conceptions and ICT Supported Activities. The structural model evaluation included the above-mentioned steps. First, collinearity was examined by VIF values and was found suf ficient (VIF ¼ 1.00, 1.072). Second, the coefficient of determina- tion (R 2 ) value of Teachers' ICT Ef ficacy (0.146) was found rather weak, a low result was also found for ICT Supported Activities (0.023). The R 2 value of Teachers' Sense of Ef ficacy was moderate (0.433). According to the f 2 results, Constructivist Conceptions had a high effect (0.765) on Teachers' Sense of Ef ficacy whereas the Table 1 Descriptive statistics of the research constructs and indicators. Construct Indicators Mean SD Skewness Kurtosis Constructivist Conceptions 4.141 0.610 0.567 0.095 Traditional Conceptions 3.532 0.703 0.848 1.149 Teachers' Sense of Ef ficacy 4.062 0.522 0.534 .3990 Ef ficacy in student engagement 4.093 0.595 0.524 .510 Ef ficacy in instructional strategies 4.113 0.595 0.691 .989 Ef ficacy in classroom management 4.025 0.595 0.642 .487 Teachers' ICT Ef ficacy 3.672 0.787 0.572 .626 Teachers' ICT Professional Development 3.458 0.861 0.174 0.379 ICT Supported Activities in the Classroom 3.076 0.895 0.207 0.249 D. Alt / Teaching and Teacher Education 73 (2018) 141 e150 145 latter had a moderate effect (0.171) on Teachers' ICT Ef ficacy, other results were close to zero. Finally, the predictive relevance (Q 2 ) of the path model was assessed: ICT Supported Activities (0.011), Teachers' ICT Ef ficacy (0.085), and Teachers' Sense of Efficacy (0.313). These results con firm H4. Given the very low results regarding the impact of Teachers' ICT ef ficacy on ICT activities in the class- rooms, it may be concluded that H5 was partially con firmed. H6 assessment was similar to the above procedure; however, in this case, as shown in Model 4 ( Fig. 4 ), the Teachers' ICT Profes- sional Development construct was entered into the model as a mediator, between Teachers' ICT Ef ficacy and ICT Supported Ac- tivities. An additional direct path between the latter constructs was speci fied to allow measuring the full/partial/none mediating role of the Teachers' ICT Professional Development construct. The analysis was in accordance with the above-described procedures. Addi- tional information to previous model results provided by this analysis as seen in Table 2 (results for Model 4) is the positive link between Teachers' ICT Ef ficacy and Teachers' ICT Professional Development, and the low and positive coef ficient result found between the latter and ICT Supported Activities. Moreover, Teach- ers' ICT Professional Development has mediated the link between Teachers' ICT Ef ficacy and ICT Supported Activities, with a very low indirect effect found between them. Teachers' Sense of Ef ficacy has indirectly contributed to Teachers' ICT Professional Development through Teachers' ICT Ef ficacy, a similar trajectory was found be- tween Constructivist Conceptions and Teachers' ICT Professional Development, pointing to the mediating role of both teachers' ef- ficacy constructs. The model evaluation yielded suf ficient collinearity assess- ment results (1 VIF 1.611). The R 2 value of the ICT Supported Constructivist Activities (0.090) was found weak. A relatively higher result was indicated for Teachers' ICT Ef ficacy (0.138). Moderate results were found for Teachers' Sense of Ef ficacy (0.434) and Teachers' ICT Professional Development (0.366). The f 2 results showed that, similar to the previous models, Construc- tivist Conceptions had a high effect (0.766) on Teachers' Sense of Ef ficacy, Teachers' Sense of Efficacy had a low effect (0.161) on Teachers' ICT Ef ficacy, and Constructivist Conceptions had a very low effect (0.002) on ICT Supported Activities. In addition, Teachers' ICT Ef ficacy had a high effect (0.578) on Teachers' ICT Professional Development, whereas the latter had a very low ef- fect (0.075) on ICT Supported Activities. The predictive relevance (Q 2 ) of the path model was assessed and was found very low for ICT supported Activities (0.053) and for Teachers' ICT Ef ficacy (0.084). Higher results were indicated for Teachers' ICT Profes- sional Development (0.228), and for Teachers' Sense of Ef ficacy (0.313). Taken together with the non-signi ficant direct effect Fig. 2. Model 2. Analysis results of the examination of H2 and H3 by PLS-SEM. Note: P1-P9 are observed items related to the Constructivist Conceptions latent variable; S1-S4 and S6-S8 are observed items related to the Traditional Conceptions latent variable; T2-T4 are observed items related to the Ef ficacy in Student Engagement latent variable; T5, T9, T10, and T12 are observed items related to the Ef ficacy in Instructional Strategy latent variable; T6, T7, T8, and T1 are observed items related to the Efficacy in Classroom Management latent variable. D. Alt / Teaching and Teacher Education 73 (2018) 141 e150 146 between Teachers' ICT Ef ficacy and ICT Supported Activities, these findings point to a full, yet rather weak, mediating role of Teachers' ICT Professional Development in linking those constructs. 4. Discussion The overarching aim of this study was to explore science teachers' conception of traditional versus constructivist teaching Table 2 Signi ficance analysis of the direct and indirect effects. Direct Effect t value p value Indirect Effect t value p value Model 2 Constructivist Conceptions -Ef ficacy in Student Engagement .541 12.991 .000 Constructivist Conceptions - Ef ficacy in Instructional Strategies .575 13.864 .000 Constructivist Conceptions - Ef ficacy in Classroom Management .538 11.422 .000 Traditional Conceptions -Ef ficacy in Student Engagement .134 3.011 .003 Traditional Conceptions - Ef ficacy in Instructional Strategies .084 1.896 .059 Traditional Conceptions - Ef ficacy in Classroom Management .135 3.251 .001 Model 3 Constructivist Conceptions - ICT Supported Activities .004 0.049 .941 Constructivist Conceptions - Teachers' Sense of Ef ficacy .658 17.187 .000 Teachers' Sense of Ef ficacy - Teachers' ICT Efficacy .382 8.308 .000 Teachers' ICT Ef ficacy - ICT Supported Activities .150 2.093 .037 Constructivist Conceptions - ICT Supported Activities .038 2.040 .042 Constructivist Conceptions - Teachers' ICT Ef ficacy .252 7.380 .000 Teachers' Sense of Ef ficacy - ICT Supported Activities .057 2.084 .038 Model 4 Constructivist Conceptions - ICT Supported Activities -.039 0.713 .476 .039 2.426 .016 Constructivist Conceptions - Teachers' Sense of Ef ficacy .658 16.822 .000 Teachers' Sense of Ef ficacy - Teachers' ICT Efficacy .372 7.861 .000 Teachers' ICT Ef ficacy - Teachers' ICT Professional Development .605 16.763 .000 Teachers' ICT Professional Development - ICT Supported Activities .330 4.479 .000 Teachers' ICT Ef ficacy - ICT Supported Activities -.041 0.527 .599 .199 4.142 .000 Constructivist Conceptions - Teachers' ICT Ef ficacy .245 6.999 .000 Constructivist Conceptions - Teachers' ICT Professional Development .148 6.456 .000 Teachers' Sense of Ef ficacy - ICT Supported Activities .059 2.420 .016 Teachers' Sense of Ef ficacy - Teachers' ICT Professional Development .225 7.173 .000 Fig. 3. Model 3. Analysis results of the examination of H4 and H5 by PLS-SEM. Note: P1-P9 are observed items related to the Constructivist Conceptions latent variable; A11-A19 are observed items related to the ICT Supported Activities latent variable; The Teachers' Sense of Ef ficacy latent variable is accompanied by three observed variables; H5-H8 are observed items related to the Teachers' ICT Ef ficacy latent variable. D. Alt / Teaching and Teacher Education 73 (2018) 141 e150 147 and learning, their sense of ef ficacy, ICT efficacy, and ICT profes- sional development, as precursors to their use of ICT activities in their classrooms. The results showed that, as expected, the teachers tended towards constructivist than traditional conceptions about teaching and learning. Moreover, Constructivist Conceptions exer- ted moderate and signi ficant effects on the Teachers' Sense of Ef- ficacy sub-factors, the highest result was found for the path associated with the Ef ficacy in Instructional Strategies construct. This construct pertains to teachers ’ willingness to implement new instructional techniques and respond to the needs of students, their tendency to use a variety of instructional and assessment strategies to promote student thinking, adjust the lesson to individual student needs, deal with learning dif ficulties, repair student mis- conceptions, and implement alternative strategies ( Tschannen- Moran & Woolfolk-Hoy, 2001 ). Merely small signi ficant coeffi- cient results were indicated for the Traditional Conceptions with relation to Teachers' Sense of Ef ficacy. The Efficacy in Classroom Management construct was mainly associated with the teachers' traditional conceptions. Classroom management is perceived as the process of organizing and conducting the classroom, and involves the maintenance of the classroom environment so that educational goals can be accomplished ( Garrett, 2014 ; Savage & Savage, 2010 ). In this study, this construct referred to the teachers' ability to control disruptive behavior or to get the children follow classroom rules. The link between these constructs may re flect the power relations that exist in traditional classrooms in which teachers do not share authority with students. The teacher is largely, if not exclusively, responsible for setting goals, designing learning tasks, and assessing what is learned. These relations are conceived as an exhibition of authority and employment of power ( Beck, 2009 ; Oral, 2013 ). Allen (2010) maintains that the way teachers manage their students' behavior is impacted by the models they adopt, and the strategies that are commensurate with these models: demo- cratic models that see misbehavior as an opportunity to learn or behavioristic models that make use of punishment, coercion, and rewards. Another result showed that Teachers' Sense of Ef ficacy, informed by their constructivist conceptions, was positively con- nected to their ICT ef ficacy. These results may be corroborated by previous studies that link teachers' high levels of academic self- ef ficacy to computer self-efficacy (e.g., Yesilyurt et al., 2016 ). However, our analysis did not corroborate the postulated positive direct connection between ICT ef ficacy and actual use of ICT sup- ported constructivist activities in the classrooms, yet, additional results pointed to the positive mediation role of teachers' ICT pro- fessional development activities in linking those constructs. Such activities mainly pertain to formal training programs teachers engaged with to learn about new tools and strategies that involve ICT effective implementations in the classroom. Taken together, this study's results point to the contribution, to some extent, of science teachers' conception of constructivist teaching and learning, sense of ef ficacy, ICT efficacy, and ICT professional development, in explaining teachers' tendency to enact ICT practices in their classrooms. However, it is noteworthy that the measured variables showed a limited ability in explaining the use of ICT in the classroom for constructivist activities. A plausible explanation might be related to methodology. In contrast to previous work, in this study, a wide variety of science Fig. 4. Model 4. Analysis results of the examination of H6 by PLS-SEM. Note: P1-P9 are observed items related to the Constructivist Conceptions latent variable; A11-A19 are observed items related to the ICT Supported Activities latent variable; The Teachers' Sense of Ef ficacy latent variable is accompanied by three observed variables; H5-H8 are observed items related to the Teachers' ICT Ef ficacy latent variable; H1-H4 are observed items related to the Teachers' ICT Professional Development latent variable. D. Alt / Teaching and Teacher Education 73 (2018) 141 e150 148 inquiry-based activities was measured, whereas previous studies' measurements were restricted to assessing ICT as a learning tool, not related to constructivist learning objectives ( Vanderlinde & van Braak, 2010 ). 4.1. Limitations and directions for future research The present work features several limitations and directions for future research that warrant mentioning. First, the coef ficients of determination (R 2 ) for the ICT Supported Activities in the Class- room construct were weak; therefore future research should consider expanding the model tested here with additional variables that might explain it. For example, organizational features or local conditions that might impact the process of integrating ICT into the teaching and learning process ( Hayes, 2007 ); or appropriate physical learning environment conducive to inquiry-based learning. The latter condition might be positively connected the implementation of constructivist activities in general and ICT- supported activities in particular. This premise is shared by other researchers (e.g., Silva, 2007 ) who claim that the process of adapting the learning environment to the 21st century is just at the beginning and that much more effort needs to be taken for this learning to truly thrive. Second, the self-report measures used in this study raise the necessity to employ diverse methods to lend more con fidence to the conclusions about the connections between the research fac- tors, such as qualitative techniques. Moreover, future studies may further bene fit from an alternative measure that focuses more speci fically on observed teacher behaviors and should involve in- terventions that might contribute to the knowledge gathered thus far on their actual behavior in learning environments. For this purpose, approaches such as Design-Based Research (DBR) or Download 1.07 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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