Stylistic classification of the english vocabulary

1. Interaction of Dictionary and Contextual Logical Meanings
The relation between the dictionary and contextual logical meanings may be maintained on the principle of affinity, on that part of proximity, or on opposition. Thus the stylistic device based on the first principle is meta­phor, on the second - metonymy and on the third - irony.
2. Interaction of Primary and Derivative Logical Meanings
Stylistic devices based on the interaction of the pri­mary and the derivative (secondary) meanings of one and the same word are very popular in English fiction, espe­cially in that of the XIX century: the highly developed system of English polysemy and nomonymy is one of the main factors explaining this fact.


a) Polysemy
Derivative logical meanings always retain some se­mantic ties with the primary meanings and are strongly as­sociated with them. Most of the derivative logical mea­nings fixed in dictionaries are usually shown with the words they are connected with and are therefore consi­dered bound logical meanings. The primary and de­rivative meanings are sometimes called free and bound meanings respectively, though some of the derivative mea­nings are not bound in present-day English.
In actual speech polysemy vanishes if the word is not used deliberately for certain stylistic purposes. A con­text generally materializes one definite meaning. That is why we state that polysemy vanishes in speech, or lan- guage-in-action.
Let us analyze the following example:
"Massachusetts was hostile to the American flag, and she would not allow it to be hoisted on her State House."
The word "flag" is used in its primary meaning when it appears in combination with the verb "to hoist" and in its derivative (or contextual) meaning in the combination "was hostile to".


b) Zeugma and Pun
There are special stylistic devices which make a word materialize two distinct dictionary meaning. They are zeugma and the pun.
Zeugma. Simultaneously realization within the same short context of two meanings of a polysemantic word is called zeugma. The semantic relation of meanings of a word on the one hand literal, and on the other, transferred. For example:
"It is not linen you are wearing out but human creature's life!"
Here the verb "to wear out" is used in its direct mea­ning (to wear out linen) and in the figurative meaning (to wear out one's life) simultaneously.
The stylistic device is particularly favoured in Eng­lish emotive prose and poetry.
Zeugma is a strong and effective device to maintain the purity of the primary meaning when the two meanings clash.
Pun. Pun is another stylistic device based on the in­teraction of two well-known meanings of a word or phra­se. It is difficult to draw a distinction between zeugma and pun. The only distinguishing feature is that zeugma is the realization of two meanings with the help of a verb - direct and indirect. The pun is more independent. Like any other stylistic device, it must depend on a context. But the context may be of a more expanded character, sometimes even as large as a whole work of emotive prose.
Here is an example of a pun where a large context for its realization is used:
"Bow to the board", said Bumple. Oliver brushed away two or three tears that were lin­gering in his eyes; and seeing no board but the table, fortunately bowed to that. (Mark Twain)
Humorous effect is achieved by the interplay not of two meanings of one word, but of two words. "Board" as a group of officials with functions of administration and "board" as a piece of furniture (a table). The same happens with the use of prepositions, which leads to mixing up the attribute with prepositional object.
"Did you hit a woman with the child?
"No, Sir, I hit her with the brick". (O'Henry)
Sometimes to clear away all doubt, or to focus the reader's attention on the trick, the author supplies expla­nation.
"I was such a lonesome girl until you came", she said. "There is not a single man in all this ho­tel that's half alive".
"But I am not a single", Mr. Topper replied cautiously.
"Oh, I don't mean that" she laughed. "And anyway I hate single men, they always propose marriage". (Th. Smith).
Here we see the simultaneous realization of two mea­nings of the word "single" ("single"-"bachelor" and "single"-"one, the lonely") is cleared away in the process of narration.