Sustainable Plant Nutrition: Molecular Interventions and Advancements for Crop Improvement
part of chlorophyll, the chemical that helps plants to convert solar energy
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Useofnano-fertilizerstoimprovethenutrientuseefficienciesinplants
part of chlorophyll, the chemical that helps plants to convert solar energy into chemical energy by using water and CO 2 (i.e., photosynthesis). It ’s also a major component of organic molecules i.e., amino acids, which are the monomers of peptide chains or proteins. Proteins, which function as building elements in plant tissue and cellular structures such as enzymes and others, are responsible for many of the chemical reactions that allow life to exist. Nitrogen is found in energy-transfer compounds such as ATP (adenosine triphosphate), which aids cellular entities in storing and using the energy generated through metabolic reactions ( Mejías et al., 2021 ). Use of nano-fertilizers to improve the nutrient use ef ficiencies in plants 311 Furthermore, nitrogen is present in deoxyribonucleic acid DNA, the genetic makeup that allows cells (and subsequently entire species e.g., plant) to pro- liferate and procreate. Because nitrogen molecules of organic nature e.g., ammonium (NH 4 þ ) ions, and nitrate (NO 3 ), and nitrite (NO 2 ) ions are all available to plants in three distinct forms. The vast bulk of nitrogen in soil is unavailable to plants. This is because negatively charged nitrate has a lower af finity for soil particle surfaces than positively charged nitrate and hence does not readily sorb on soil ( Tamme et al., 2021 ). To combat the dif ficulties associated with nitrogen leaching during fertilization, several techniques such as polyole fin resin-coated urea, neem-coated urea, and sulfur-coated urea have been used. Sluggish-release fertilizers, on the other hand, are frequently costly, and the release of nitrogen is slow at times of high N. To limit NH 4 þ release, cation exchangers can be used as fertilizer additions to prevent N loss. Zeolite boosts total crop productivity by retain- ing and releasing vital nutrients at the right moment ( Prasad & Shivay, 2021 ). Phosphorus is an essential nutrient in plants because it is a component of several major plant structure components and serves as a catalyst in the con- version of multiple key biochemical processes. Phosphorus is by far the most essential nutrient in plants because of its role in energy transport and storage. P is immobilized in soil due to various edaphic processes, limiting its timely and adequate availability for plant uptake. As a result, present water-soluble P fertilizers have a low usage ef ficiency, which causes severe environmental and human health issues ( Bindraban et al., 2020 ). Because of its role in en- ergy transport and storage in plants, phosphorus is the most essential nutrient. The most essential types of phosphates involved in energy transfer are adenosine di- and triphosphates (ADP and ATP). Phosphoproteins, phospholipids, sugar phosphates, coenzymes, nucleic acids, and metabolic substrates all contain it. P is required for the formation of reproductive struc- tures in the early stages of crop growth. Plants require greater concentrations of macronutrients than micronutrients (among them nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium, calcium, Sulfur, and magnesium are included). Similarly, the fertilizer industry creates fertilizer comprising of macronutrients in greater volumes. As a result, it ’s unexpected that the rate of macronutrient-related Nano-fertilizer basic research and development (R&D) hasn ’t kept pace with their value in crop productivity ( Dimkpa & Bindraban, 2017 ). The sol- ubility and cation-exchange properties of combinations of rock phosphate and NH 4 þ and K saturated clinoptilolite demonstrated that dissolution and ion-exchange processes in mixtures of zeolite and phosphate rock had the potential to offer slow-release of fertilizers for plants in synthetic soils. 312 Qurat ul Ain et al. When saturated with monovalent nutritional cations such as NH 4 þ and K þ, zeolites (clinoptilolite) have been shown to improve the solubility of phos- phate rock (PR). The effectiveness of fertilizer P use by crops in the year it was applied ranged from 18% to 20%. The remaining 78% to 80% is absorbed into the soil P pool, where it is distributed to the crop over months and years ( Dimkpa & Bindraban, 2017 ). The dissolution and ionic characteristics of rock phosphate and NH 4 þ and K saturated clinoptilolite showed that solubility and ion-exchange mecha- nisms in composites of zeolite and phosphate rock would have the ability to provide delayed fertilizing in plants and synthetic soils. Zeolites (clinop- tilolite) have been demonstrated to enhance the solubility of phosphate rock when swamped with monovalent dietary cations such as NH 4 þ and K þ (PR). The usage of phosphate P by crops during annual application shows 18% e20% effectivity. The remaining 78 to 80% is incorporated into the soil P reservoir, where it is delivered over long periods to the crop ( Adhikari et al., 2020 ). Some natural zeolites have high levels of exchangeable K þ, which can help plants develop faster in potting soil. For example, data on the gradual release of K from K-zeolite was supplied. Because zeolite could adsorb po- tassium from chemical fertilizer and decrease leakage, the application of 625 kg ha-1 chemical fertilizer combined with 125 kg ha-1 zeolite showed the highest quantity of potassium in the soil ( Rajonee et al., 2017 ). Because of the placement and density of the negative charge in the microstructure of Nano-fertilizer, natural zeolites are extremely selective for K þ rather than sodium or divalent cations like calcium and magnesium ( Al-Shahmani & Al-Juthery, 2021 ). Because of the ion exchangeability of zeolites with cho- sen nutrient cations, zeolites can become an effective plant development medium for feeding plant roots with additional necessary nutrient cations and anions, according to the researchers. Regardless, that potassium fixation in soil and its dynamic equilibrium mutually maintain potassium levels in the soil to be available for uptake by plants, still applications of nanotechnology in fertilizers and soil sciences can increase nutrient availability and regulation ( Dimkpa & Bindraban, 2017 ). Nano fertilizer technology has limited insights, and there is a shortage of published research in scholarly publications. Conventional fertilizers have nutrient usage ef ficiency of just 30%e35%, 18%e20%, and 35%e40% for N, P, and K, respectively. For the previous few decades, the data has remained steady, and study efforts have not yielded productive outcomes. Nano-fertilizers are nutrient transporters made from substrates with Use of nano-fertilizers to improve the nutrient use ef ficiencies in plants 313 nanoscale dimensions ranging from 1 to 100 nm. Nanoparticles have a large surface area and can contain a lot of nutrients and release them slowly and gradually, making it easier for crops to get the nutrients they need without the negative side effects of tailored fertilizer applications ( Zul fiqar et al., 2019 ). 8. Micronutrients based nano-fertilizers Elements involved essentially in plant development but in consider- ably fewer quantities than nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium are micro- nutrients. Boron (B), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), zinc (Zn), and chloride (Cl). Micronutrients are necessary for healthy plant development and lucrative crop production, even though they are only required in trace amounts. Due to the calcareous character of soils, high pH, poor organic matter, salt stress, persistent drought, high bicarbon- ate concentration in irrigation water, and uneven use of NPK fertilizers, micronutrient insuf ficiency is endemic in many Asian nations. Reduced crop yield and quality, inadequate plant morphological structure (such as fewer small xylem vessels), pervasive infection of diverse insect pests and dis- eases, minimal stimulation of phytosiderophores, and fairly low fertilizer uti- lization are among the adverse effects of micronutrient de ficiency-induced plant tolerance. The capacity of five natural zeolites and bentonite minerals to adsorb zinc and iron and then release it was reported upon investigation. The Langmuir and Freundlich equations are being used to calculate the sorption potential of such ions ( Tarafder et al., 2020 ). Natural zeolites, notably chabazite and bentonite minerals, appear to have a signi ficant poten- tial for Zn and Fe sorption, as well as a high capacity for slow-release fertil- izers, according to the findings. The delayed delivery of Zn is due to the mineral ’s parsimonious dissolution rate and the concentration impact of the exchange, which releases trace nutrients to zeolite transfer sites where they are more available for plant uptake. For 3 years, researchers experi- mented with foliar applications of ion-exchanged zeolite on winter wheat. The increase in raw protein as a consequence of zinc zeolite treatment was better than the rise in raw protein as a result of copper-zeolite treatment ( Ekanayake & Godakumbura, 2019 ). According to Pandey et al. (2010) , zinc-rich ZnO NPs enhanced the amount of IAA in roots (sprouts), indi- cating an increase in plant development rate since zinc is an important nutrient for plants. 314 Qurat ul Ain et al. Boron is a necessary mineral for plants, but when it accumulates in exces- sive amounts, it may be hazardous to organisms. Several researchers have looked at the boron adsorption by clays, soils, and other minerals. Boron boosted root yield, shot yield, and biological yield considerably, and its treat- ments resulted in the highest root yield, shoot yield, biological yield, and sugar beet quality ( Kandil et al., 2020 ). Furthermore, Mo is a major compo- nent of the nitrogenase enzyme found in nitrogen- fixing bacteria, which is critical for legume crops. Mo is vital for N fixation in legumes and nitrate reduction control in other plants, as well as amino acid and protein produc- tion. The plant enzyme nitrate reductase requires molybdenum to function. Excess Mo NP exposure, on the other hand, might impede root growth/ elongation, delay seed germination, raise nitrate reductase levels, and result in oxidative imbalance ( Huang et al., 2021 ). Pollution and major health hazards have resulted from the overuse of mineral fertilizers and dangerous pesticides. Nanoscience may be able to address these challenges by developing higher-performing nanomaterials. Insights at the evolution of nano-fertilizers and nano-pesticides, as well as their use in agricultural systems, has been reported ( Butt & Naseer, 2020 ). N, P, K, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Mo, and carbon nanotubes are examples of nano-fertilizers that have greater release and targeted delivery ef ficiency. In comparison to traditional pesticides, nano-pesticides such as Ag, Cu, SiO2, ZnO, and nano-formulations provide improved broad-spectrum in- sect control ( Chhipa, 2017 ). 9. Conclusion The agriculture field are facing the challenges of nutrient deficiency, crop yield reduction, weakening the soil organic matter, low water availabil- ity as the result of poor nutrients use ef ficiencies. However, the application of different nano-fertilizers has greater role in improving nutrients use ef ficiency (NUE), enhancing the crop yield, reducing the environmental pollution hazard and the fertilization cost for crop production. Because, the nano-sized fertigation is more soluble, reactive, and could increase the penetration through the cuticle for targeted delivery. Meanwhile, plant root entry also increases the passage of nutrient uptake as it ’s highly porous to nano-fertilizer compared to inorganic fertilizer. Furthermore, the opti- mum concentrations of nano-fertilizers could improve crop growth but excessive dose may lead to reduced crop growth. Thus, the optimization of nano-fertilizer dose is prime important to improve nutrients use ef ficiency Use of nano-fertilizers to improve the nutrient use ef ficiencies in plants 315 in different crops. 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