Technical Translation: Usability Strategies for Translating Technical Documentation

Conclusions 
In this chapter we have established that in order to test the hypothesis that 
Iconic Linkage improves the usability of software user guides, some form of 
summative evaluation involving users is essential. With our definition of us-
ability consisting of both quantifiable and subjective components, the need 
to collect both quantitative and qualitative data is apparent. 
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Assessing Usability 
This chapter discussed the various methods for collecting data and the 
ways in which they can be implemented. It is clear from this chapter that 
indirect observation is preferable over direct observation methods because 
of the risk of influencing subjects. However, the nature of the tasks and the 
facilities available for setting up a usability laboratory made it impossible to 
conduct the experiment without the administrator being present in the 
laboratory. While this is less than ideal, the effect of the administrator’s 
presence was minimised through careful positioning and regulated interac-
tions during the experiments. 
We also considered a variety of data collection methods such as inter-
views, video and audio recording, screen logging and questionnaires. After 
discussing each of these in detail, it was possible to select and reject meth-
ods on the basis of their suitability for the requirements of this study. 
An examination of literature relating to previous experiments and case 
studies was carried out in the hope of finding useful information on con-
ducting usability experiments. What emerged from this review is that there 
seems to have been a shift away from documentation usability testing over 
the past decade or so, particularly with regard to print documentation. 
Those that do deal with documentation, regard documentation as including 
both print and online texts. Other studies which exhibit certain compatibil-
ities with this study often differ in terms of their goals and objectives or 
they make inappropriate assumptions. Nevertheless, by analysing several 
studies, it was possible to extract useful pointers for conducting a usability 
experiment. Of the literature reviewed, only two stand out as being par-
ticularly relevant or useful. These studies were discussed in detail. 
With this background knowledge, the chapter proceeded to describe the 
preparations, procedures and results of a pilot study conducted to test the 
methodology and protocols for the study. This consisted of producing ma-
terials and forms, recruiting participants, defining evaluation criteria for test-
ing the user guide etc. The chapter describes the problems encountered 
during the pilot study. One such problem which emerged related to the 
specification of evaluation criteria. This proved problematic because al-
though certain criteria may be useful or important, they may not necessarily 
be measurable due to the nature of the product and tasks. Similarly, data 
collection tools and methods are not always suitable for recording a particu-
lar type of information. Consequently, a number of changes had to be made 
before conducting the main study. 
Other issues such as those encountered with the participant who refused 
to follow instructions show that a great deal of preparation, flexibility and 
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discipline on the part of the tester are essential in order to cope with

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Conclusions
foreseen eventualities. Future research of this nature would need
to take 
into account the notion of field-dependent and field-independent people, 
i.e. people who are more or less likely to use a user guide to learn how to 
use software. Screening of participants would, therefore, need to identify 
whether potential participants tend to use user guides or whether they pre-
fer to figure it out for themselves . This could be done simply by asking 
them how they normally learn how to use software or by using the 
Group 
Embedded Figures Test 
– GEFT (Witkin 
et al. 
1971). 
Having described the pilot study and the modifications made to the test 
procedures, the chapter proceeded to discuss the main study. From this we 
can see quite clearly that Iconic Linkage clearly has a positive effect on the 
usability of software user guides. 
Taking the first of the three components of usability, i.e. the speed with 
which users perform tasks, the results of the empirical study clearly show 
that subjects using a user guide into which Iconic Linkage has been intro-
duced performed tasks significantly faster than those using a user guide with 
no Iconic Linkage. 
An interesting issue arises in relation to the results of the pilot study and 
the main study with regard to task times. While both studies showed the 
same dichotomy of results between the two groups, the subjects in both 
groups in the main study performed the tasks significantly more quickly 
than their counterparts in the pilot study. This can be explained by the fact 
that the participants in the main study were more experienced in the type 
of work involved, had more experience of using computers and had a bet-
ter understanding of the context in which the software is used than those in 
the pilot study. 
With regard to error rates for the two groups in the main study, the re-
sults show that the Control group made three times more mistakes than the 
Experimental group. Considering this more closely we can see that the Ex-
perimental group completed more tasks, worked more efficiently and made 
fewer mistakes using icons and commands. The Post Test Survey also 
shows that the Experimental group remembered more information about 
the software than the Control group. 
In assessing the final component of our definition of usability, the user 
satisfaction questionnaire shows that attitudes to and satisfaction levels with 
the software were considerably more favourable in the Experimental group 
than in the Control group. The Experimental group found that the user 
guide which featured Iconic Linkage was clearer, easier to understand and 
more effective in helping them achieve their goals than the Control group. 
Interestingly, questions in the questionnaire designed to detect whether us
251
un
“
”
ers 

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Assessing Usability 
group did not detect Iconic Linkage. Both groups gave broadly similar rat-
ings for the consistency and amount of repetition. This indicates that intro-
distrac
commented that the lack of consistency in phrasing instructions was prob-
lematic for comprehension. No other subject mentioned this but this is a 
definite reference to Iconic Linkage – the user said that the lack of Iconic 
Linkage was distracting and resulted in the need to “refocus” after each sen-
tence. 
In the main study, another interesting issue arose in relation to interfer-
ence between users’ existing knowledge and the new information they 
were trying to learn. The existing knowledge domain in question related to 
users’ prior knowledge of 
Microsoft Word
and 
QuicKey
. One member of
the Control group noted that the way 
QuicKeys
worked in a fundamen-
tion.
tion. 
the
subject; no other subjects mentioned this. 
guides. Introducing Iconic Linkage into a text during translation makes it 
easier for users to understand the information and helps them learn to use 
the software more quickly. Even with the small sample sizes used in this 
study, it has been shown with a high level of statistical reliability that Iconic 
Linkage makes user guides more effective, that users can perform their tasks 
more quickly and retain more knowledge for longer.
The fact that clear improvements were detected across the three compo-
nents of the test, i.e. task times, error rates and satisfaction levels, also shows 
that concerns regarding the possible confounding influence of the slight 
improvement in readability or the elimination of passive sentences are un-
tences was the only improvement in the user guide, the improvements 
would be restricted to the task times alone because participants would have 
been able to read the user guide more quickly. However, because error 
rates and satisfaction levels also improved among the Experimental group, it 
is unlikely that this is simply due to the lack of passives. As such, it is diffi-
cult to treat the elimination of passives as a genuine confounding factor. 
252
detected the presence of Iconic Linkage indicated that the Experimental 
tally different way to the way 
Microsoft Word 
implements a similar func
Thus, prior knowledge hampered users’ learning of the new informa
This information was not specifically requested, it was volunteered by
tion for users. Indeed, one subject in the Control group a 
ctually
ducing repetition into a user guide does not necessarily represent a
effective strategy for improving the usability of translated software user
Overall, the empirical study shows that Iconic Linkage is a viable and 
founded. Even if, as was discussed on page 215, the absence of passive sen-

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Chapter 6