Text as a subject of philological analysis

1. 
   Text as a subject of philological analysis
   

Answer; Philology (from Ancient Greek φιλολογία (philología) 'love of word') is the study of language in oral and written historical sources; it is the intersection of textual criticism, literary criticism, history, and linguistics (with especially strong ties to etymology). Philology is also defined as the study of literary texts as well as oral and written records, the establishment of their authenticity and their original form, and the determination of their meaning. A person who pursues this kind of study is known as a philologist. In older usage, especially British, philology is more general, covering comparative and historical linguistics.
2.The concept of philological analysis and its components. Types of linguistic analysis of the text. A: Complex philological analysis of the text includes linguistic, stylistic, and literary analysis. generalizes and synthesizes the data of linguistic and stylistic analysis, establishes the relationship between the form and content of a literary work considered in the cultural and historical context of the epoch. The goal of Linguistic analysis is to understand the content of the text. Statistical methods are used to find the most probable meaning of the text. A grapheme is a letter or a sequence of letters that represent a sound (i.e., phoneme) in a word. Phonetic analysis converts graphemes into phonemes
3.Aspects of the study of a literary text. A: In contrast to literary analysis (which is the study of figurative and ideological plans of the text, the definition of the features of its interaction with cultural-historical and conceptual creativity of the author contexts, the study of literary text as a fact of history of social thought and social struggle, etc.) the subject of linguistic analysis of literary text serves as the linguistic organization of the text, namely connections and relations of units of different levels, in unity expressing a particular line aesthetic concept of the work
4.Stylistic analysis of literary and non-literary texts. A: Non-literary texts are texts such as advertisements, brochures, and newspaper or magazine articles and editorials. They're typically short and to the point, and they do not use a lot of figurative language like imagery and metaphor. On the other hand, a literary text is a piece of written material, such as a book or poem, that has the. purpose of telling a story or entertaining, as in a fictional novel. Its primary function as a. text is usually aesthetic, but it may also contain political messages or beliefs. This section sums up the fundamental differences between the two varieties of text.
5.What are the specific features of the philological analysis of the text? A: identifies the following specific features of the philological analysis of the text:
1) this is an analysis in which the text is considered as a cultural phenomenon (L. N. Murzin).
2) It implies attention to the broad literary and socio-historical context of the epoch.
3. Analysis reflecting interest in language tools as a form of expression of our thoughts and feelings in different spheres of communication.
4. The analysis is aimed at the study of a language personality behind the text (Yu. N. Guard), her style and view of the world.
5. It assumes interest in the word in connection with the consideration of the text as a reflection of the author's verbal culture and society at a certain stage of its development. Philology "is based on love for the verbal culture of all languages, on full tolerance, respect and interest in all verbal cultures" [Likhachev D. S.].

6.What are diachrony and synchrony, paradigmatic and syntagmatic? A: Synchrony and diachrony are two complementary viewpoints in linguistic analysis. A synchronic approach (from Ancient Greek: συν- "together" and χρόνος "time") considers a language at a moment in time without taking its history into account. Synchronic linguistics aims at describing a language at a specific point of time, often the present. In contrast, a diachronic (from δια- "through" and χρόνος "time") approach, as in historical linguistics, considers the development and evolution of a language through history. PARADIGMATIC AND SYNTAGMATIC. Contrasting terms in (structural) LINGUISTICS. Every item of language has a paradigmatic relationship with every other item which can be substituted for it (such as cat with dog), and a syntagmatic relationship with items which occur within the same construction (for example, in The cat sat on the mat, cat with the and sat on the mat). The relationships are like axes, as shown in the accompanying diagram. Rules for using methods, as well as their constituent techniques, are a method of stylistic analysis Aspect of research is the "angle of view", "perspective" object of reality, such as diachrony and synchrony, paradigmatic and syntagmatic, language and speech in combination used in their study methods and techniques

7.The essence of the philological analysis of the text is its projection on texts of different styles and genres? A: This analysis can be a) basic practical, shared employees "clarification" of the text (e.g., explanation of obsolete words and forms of language), and b) linguistic, based on data from linguistic theory, the facts of the language system and its history; 2) stylistic analysis, study of figurative means of the text as a) in different styles and genres and b) copyright; 3) literary analysis-the study of literary text as a product of national culture, social thought, works of verbal art (ie, the study of the relationship of literary text with the era, its place in the literary process and creativity of the writer, issues, ideological content, images, composition, plot, language, etc.)
8. What are the steps of Comprehensive philological analysis? A: Comprehensive philological analysis
It includes a number of steps:
1) linguistic analysis of the text creates an objective basis for an adequate interpretation of the work;li
2) stylistic analysis aimed at determining the stylistic features of the text at the level of usage and individual style of the author, creating a basis for studying the language and conceptual picture of the author's world;
3) literary analysis of the author's creative search against the background of the General dynamics of the literary process
9. Text linguistics–the branch of linguistics? A: Text linguistics is a branch of linguistics concerned with the description and analysis of extended texts (either spoken or written) in communicative contexts. Sometimes spelled as one word, textlinguistics (after the German Textlinguistik).Comparative Stylistics is a relatively new branch of linguistics. Though general problems of Stylistics in different languages have been rather well studied the comparative analysis of stylistic phenomena has not received much attention in the linguistic literature, and consequently, many issues have remained unresolved. There are not so many researches devoted to this subject but some o f them made a significant contribution to the treatment of Comparative Stylistics. As for comparative analysis of the English and Turkic languages in the field of Stylistics, this area of the study is only at the beginning o f its development.

10. The relationship of text linguistics with other sciences? There are close links between Stylistics and Text Linguistics. It is due to the fact that stylistics tor the most part is based on the study of texts, mainly literary texts. Therefore it is expedient to single out a stylistic trend (Text Stylistics) in text linguistics, which embraces a great variety of problems:

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  text types related to the problem of functional styles;
  
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  compositional structure of the text;
  
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  stylistic text categories;
  
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  stylistic means of cohesion and coherence;
  

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  11.Define the term “the informative level of the text”? A: the informative level subdivided from the linguistic point of view into phonetic, morphological, lexical, and syntactical, from extra-linguistic - into denotative, thematic and compositional sublevels. The denotative sublevel explicates the objects o f the described in the text reality, their relationships, coordination and subordination. The thematic level embraces a range o f vital problems and life experiences shown through the author’s individual perception. The main theme is subdivided into microthemes and subthemes which being bound together reflect the realities o f the surrounding world and its creative comprehension;
  

12.The main directions of the philological analysis of a literary text? A: Philology is also defined as the study of literary texts as well as oral and written records, the establishment of their authenticity and their original form, and the determination of their meaning. A person who pursues this kind of study is known as a philologist.

13.Philological analysis of the text depending on its style and genre? A: Philology is also defined as the study of literary texts as well as oral and written records, the establishment of their authenticity and their original form, and the determination of their meaning. A person who pursues this kind of study is known as a philologist.

14.What is the connection of the conceptual (cognitive) level with an aesthetic function? A:the conceptual (cognitive) level is closely knit with an aesthetic function of the text and represents an individual conceptual world picture reflecting the author’s aesthetic credo, his purport and world perception. From the linguistic point of view the analysis o f this level aims to describe relationships between textual features and cognitive processes, linguistic choices and cognitive structures

15. The role of the title, the names of parts of the whole text? A:
16. The main categories of the text (cohesion,emergence,prospectus,retrospection,continuum)? A: the act or state of sticking together tightly. especially : unity. the lack of cohesion in the Party The Times Literary Supplement cohesion among soldiers in a unit. : union between similar plant parts or organs. the fact of something becoming known or starting to exist: China's emergence as an economic power. the emergence of a new strain of the HIV virus. A prospectus is a formal document required by and filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) that provides details about an investment offering to the public. A prospectus is filed for offerings of stocks, bonds, and mutual funds. the action of looking back on or reviewing past events or situations, especially those in one's own life. "he was disinclined to indulge in retrospection. a continuous sequence in which adjacent elements are not perceptibly different from each other, but the extremes are quite distinct.

17.Text categories depending on the functional and semantic type of speech? A: Any semantic model of translation, theory of translation stipulated for comparing elements of the content of the original and translation inevitably involves an analysis of the structure of the content, the ability to allocate him some basic units or components. The text of the original allocated "semantic content" and "expressive-stylistic” features. The first (referred to as "object-logical content") united all the factual information and the second - the emotional-evaluative elements and characteristics of units of text in terms of their belonging to certain functional style of language or genre of speech. All the same, and such segmentation is allowed to point to the need to include in the translation equivalence of expressive-stylistic consistency of the original and translation

18.Structural elements of the text in the irinterrelation? A: The problems o f perception, understanding, interpretation and knowledge structures are in the centre o f attention in Cognitive Stylistics. Perception is understood as a cognitive activity dealing with the cognitive processing o f textual information, its conceptualization and categorization. The process of perception is a complicated mechanism based on the interrelation o f many linguistic and extra-linguistic factors.
19.Definition of emotive meanings in text analysis? A: the emotive meaning of a word can be clearly understood if we introduce the notion of neutral meaning. It denotes the unemotional communication. Stylistic significance of emotional words and constructions are easily sensed when they are set against the non emotional words and constructions.
20.The lexical structure of the text, literary and non-literary texts? A; Literary text is a text from literature work. For example, short story, play or drama, poetry and many others. Meanwhile, non- literary text is concerned with information, facts and reality. It can be article, document, scientific text, issues and many others.
21. The main function of the metaphor? A: The main function of the metaphor is to create images. Genuine metaphors create bright images in poetry and emotive prose. Trite metaphors are widely used in newspaper and scientific style. They help the author make the meaning more concrete and brighten his writings as it is an indispensable quality of human thought and perception.The function of metaphor in literature is twofold. The first, and more practical, function is to allow the reader greater understanding of the concept, object, or character being described. This is done by comparing it to an item that may be more familiar to the reader. The second function is purely artistic: to create an image that is beautiful or profound or otherwise produces the effect that the writer desires. For these reasons, writers have used the metaphor since the earliest recorded stories.
22/26. Usage of epithets in Belles letters style? A: The epithet is a SD which is built on the interplay of two meanings of a word: emotive and logical. It denotes a permanent or temporary quality of a person, thing, idea, phenomenon and characterizes it from the point of view of subjective perception: gooseberry eyes, cat-like eyes, proud boxing gloves, iron hate, waiting silence, silver hair, roseberry blond hair.An epithet has always an emotional meaning or connotation. This meaning may be combined with denotational meaning or it may exist independently. After the long usage epithets form fixed word combinations which are established in the language and enter the group of set expressions: true-love, merry mind, lady gay, sweet smile, heated discussion. Individual epithets depend on the author’s style and his artistic purpose. Eg: He looked shy and embarrassed and a wild hope came to me (G.Green).

23. Usage of Interjections in Belles letters style? A: Usually these words express our feeling such as regret, despair, sorrow, woe, surprise, astonishment etc. in the previous parts we have spoken about interjections which were defined as expressive means of the language. Emotionally coloured features of interjections after conscious and intentional intensification of their structural and semantic properties move up to a generalized status and become a stylistic device. Interjections may be divided into simple and derivative. Simple interjections : Oh! Ah! Bah! Pooh! Gosh! Hush! Alas! Derivative interjections: Heavens! Good gracious! Dear me! Good! By the lord! God knows! Bless me! Hum bug! There are a number of adjectives and adverbs which may be classified as interjections in Belles letters style. Among them are the following: terrible, awful, great, wonderful, splendid. When they are used as interjections they are not used in their logical dictionary meanings as intensifiers.

24. Usage of Metonymy in Belles letters style?. A:As we know, metonymy is a transfer of meaning based upon the association of contiguity (proximity). In metonymy the name of one thing is applied to another with which it has some permanent or temporary connection: He felt as though he must find a sympathetic intelligent ear (Th.Dreiser). the transfer of meanings may be based on temporal, spatial, casual, functional, instrumental and other relations.
Like metaphors metonymy can be divided into trite metonymy ( i.e. words of metonymic origin)and genuine metonymy.
In trite metonymy the transferred meaning is established in the semantic structure of the word as a secondary meaning. In the course of times its figurativeness and emotional colouring fades away.eg: nickel, the coin of the US and Canada worth 5 cent; hand, a workman; bench, a judge; cradle, the place where something begins (origin); grave, death; house, the people voting after a debate. Metonymy may be divided into figures of speech established in the language is frequent in colloquial speech, eg. The whole table was stirring with impatience i.e.the people sitting round the table were impatient. Green fingers, people who have skill for growing gardens; blue-collars, workers in factories, who wear overalls contrasted with white-collar workers, a symbol of non-manual labour.

25.What is Allusion? What is Oxymoron, Hyperbole? A: Allusion is аn indirect mention of some word or utterance from some book or event. Usually the reference to the source of the historical, literary or mythological fact is not given. Sometimes allusion is the only key which is used in the text to understand the whole meaning of this text. By this allusion differs from a quotation. Let’s see the following example: “Good god”, said Demoyte. Is that all you’ve done, in the last two hours? ... at this rate you’ll be with us for years. But perhaps that’s what you want — like Penelope, never finishing her work?" (I. Murdoch.) In this case allusion is made to Homer’s “Odyssey”. Allusions may be used in different functional styles.

Oxymoron is the use of an epithet (or an attributive phrase) that is contradictory to the noun it modifies. Eg.: Chopin’s beautiful sorrow, a generous miser, busy idleness, a beautifully ugly face.
An oxymoron is used to give a figurative characterization of a notion to reveal its inner complicated nature. It may serve to denote a temporary feature of a notion.
Eg.:It was with an almost cruel joy. Suddenly she felt the need to speak. The wordy silence troubled her; it was a relief to be on board and no longer alone together (D.Garnett).
Hyperbole is a figure of speech in which an author or speaker purposely and obviously exaggerates to an extreme. It is used for emphasis or as a way of making a description more creative and humorous.

27. Usage of Metonymy in Belles letters style? A: The usage of some stylistic devices in belle-lettres style is more obvious then other styles. For instance, if we take the metaphorical structure of emotions in the romantic novels we should pay attention to the lists of metaphors, the majority of metaphors emphasize the sense of emotions and feelings of human body. Certainly they can occur in literal books as novel, poems, stories. For foreign language students stylistic analysis holds particular difficulties: linguistic intuition of a native speaker, which is very helpful in all philological activities, does not work in the case of foreign learners. Besides, difficulties may arise because of the inadequate language command and the ensuing gaps in grasping the basic, denotational information. Starting stylistic analysis, thus one should bear in mind that the understanding of each separate component of the message is an indispensable condition of satisfactory work with the message as a whole, of getting down to the core and essence of its meaning.

28.Usage of Metonymy in Belles letters style? A: As we know, metonymy is a transfer of meaning based upon the association of contiguity (proximity). In metonymy the name of one thing is applied to another with which it has some permanent or temporary connection: He felt as though he must find a sympathetic intelligent ear (Th.Dreiser). the transfer of meanings may be based on temporal, spatial, casual, functional, instrumental and other relations.