The Classification of Words

THE VERB
§ 187. Analysing the verb in Modern Russian, V. V. Vi-nogradov characterizes it as "the most complex and capacious part of speech" ^J. Likewise, A. I. Smirnitsky ² stresses the
¹ В В.Виноградов. Русский язык \\ , 1947, p 422
² А. И. С м и р н и ц к и и, op cit, p. 105.
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intricate nature of the English verb, the system of which includes, as if in miniature, some other parts of speech in the shape of the so-called non-finite verbs or verbids ' (the infinitive, the gerund and the participle) ².
As a matter of fact, the verb is a system of systems. The main .division inside the verb is that between the finite verbs (finites) and the verbids. The finites can further be subdi­vided into three systems called moods ³. The infinitive, the gerund and the participle are also three systems within the verbids. Graphically this can be represented thus:

,' Finites
Indicative	Subjunctive	Imperative

Verbids
Infinitive	Gerund	Participle

Still, taken as a whole, the verb possesses all the features distinguishing a part of speech. So, naturally, we shall begin with those properties that characterize the verb as a whole. Only after that shall we dwell on the finites and the verbids separately.
§ 188. As a part of speech the verb is characterized by the following properties:

1. 
   Its lexico-grammatical meaning of 'action, process'.
   

1. 
   Certain typical stem-building elements, such as the
   suffixes -ize, -en, -ify, the prefixes re-, under-, over-, out-,
   super-, sub-, mis-, un-, the lexico-grammatical word-mor­
   phemes ⁴ up, in, off, down, out, etc.
   

¹ The term was suggested by O. Je^persen to avoid adding another
connotation to the word verbal besides a) "concerned with words",
b) "oral", c) "of the nature of a verb", d) "literal", etc M Bryant calls
it one of Jespersen's best contributions to terminology (op cit., p. 87)
² See also M Bryant, op. cit , p. 53, "The verb is the most intricate
single mechanbm ever formulated in the mind of the race",
³ See 'The Category of Mood'.
⁴ See § 14.
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3. 
   Its grammatical categories; out of the eight catego­
   ries of the verb system three are found not only in the finites,
   but in the verbids as well. Two of them — voice (asks —
   is asked, to ask — to be asked, asking — being asked) and
   order (asks — has asked, to ask — to have asked, asking —
   having asked) — are found in all the verbids, and the third —
   aspect (asks — is asking, to ask — to be asking) — in
   the infinitive.
   
4. 
   Its characteristic combmability; a verb can be associ­
   ated with nouns (noun-equivalents) denoting the doer (agent)
   and the recipient of the action expressed by the verb; it is
   regularly modified by adverbs.
   

E. g. They continued their own occupations: a woman ironing, a girl sewing, the old lady looking at her feet, and the dog watching the cat closely. (Green).
Some peculiarities of the combinability of various classes of verbs will be discussed later on.
5) Its syntactical function of the predicate (incident to
the finites only). The verbids have other functions (see §§ 303,
309), but they are secondary predicates in secondary predi­
cations (see § 310).
§ 189. As we know (§ 19), it is the stem that unites words into lexemes. Therefore, though stem-structure is not a re­liable criterion for distinguishing parts of speech, it can show whether certain words belong to the same lexeme or not. Now finites and the corresponding verbids have identical stem-structure, which characterizes them as words of the same lexemes, in spite of certain differences in combinability, function, etc. Cf. gives — giving, gives up—giving up, nationalizes — nationalizing, whitewashes — whitewashing, etc.
In accordance with their stem-structure verbs, like other parts of speech, fall under the following groups.

1. 
   Simple verbs (write, know, love).
   
2. 
   Derived verbs (organize, rewrite, purify, underesti­
   mate) .
   

Note. Among the stem-building affixes of tne verbs prefixes are of greater importance than suffixes. There is but one productive stem-build-•ing verbal suffix (-ize), while productive prefixes are more numerous (re-, un-, over-, under-, mis-, de-, etc.).
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Sound-interchange is unproductive (food — feed, blood — bleed), so is the change of stress, as in export — (to) export, transport — (to) transport.
The most productive way of forming verb lexemes is con­version: (a) book — (to) book, (a) man — (to) man, better — (to) better.
c) Compound verbs consisting of two stems, as in (to)
broadcast, (to) whitewash, (to) blindfold.
Note. Composition is of low productivity in the class of verbs.
d) Composite verbs — made up of a verb with a lexico-
grammatical word-morpheme attached to it, as in give up,
give in, take off, put on. This way of forming verbs is pro­
ductive.
§ 190. The lexico-grammatical meaning of the verb is, as usual, an abstraction from the individual lexical meanings of verbs and even from the more general lexical meanings of whole groups of verbs. Thus, the verbs to stand, to sleep, to suffer, etc. denote states rather than actions, but these states are presented as processes developing in time, and come therefore within the range of the lexico-grammatical meaning of the verb.
§ 191. The combinability of the verb is closely linked with its lexico-grammatical meaning. Denoting an action, the verb is naturally associated with nouns and noun-equiv­alents indicating the doer or'the subject of the action.
E. g. Birds fly. He was asked by the teacher. I heard of Тот \ч coming tonight.
The examples above are intended to show the difference between the subject of an action and the subject as a part of the sentence. Only in the first sentence is the subject (doer) of the action of flying denoted by a noun used as the subject of the sentence. In the second sentence the subject of, the action of asking is denoted by the noun teacher which is a part of the prepositional object. In the third sentence the subject of the action of coming is denoted by a noun (Tom's) used as an attribute.
Many verbs can also be associated with a noun (or a noun-equivalent) denoting the object of the action.
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E. g. He threw a s t о n e. The letter sent two days ago \ has reached him only today.
Here again the object of the action is something different from the object as a part of the sentence. In the first sentence the object of the action of throwing is denoted by the noun stone functioning as a direct object. In the second sentence the noun letter denotes the object of the action of sending and the subject of the action of reaching.