The ministry of higher and secondary education of the republic of uzbekistan

) Derivational morpheme :
Derivational morpheme are the morphemes. which brings a change in the word and add a new word in a language. Derivational morphemes derived different words into the English language.
There are two types of derivational morphemes which are –class changing derivational morphemes: Class changing derivational are the morphemes (suffixes) after added to the base change the word category.The Class changing derivational morphemes like –or, -er, -ly, etc. change category of the word after addition.
Class maintaining derivational, these are the morpheme of suffixes by which after addition of these morphemes to the base form of the word, the word does not change its category/class such morphemes are called class maintaining derivational.

In simple word words there are some bound morphemes if we added the to the base form of the word , the base word does not change class, they remain the same such morphemes are called the class maintaining derivational morphemes.

Chapter ll
Grammatical Category
The term "grammatical category" refers to specific properties of a word that can cause that word and/or a related word to change in form for grammatical reasons (ensuring agreement between words).
For example, the word "boy" is a noun. Nouns have a grammatical category called "number". The values of number are singular (one) and plural (two or more).
The boy is playing.
The boys are playing.
In sentence 1, "boy" is in its basic form, giving its "number" the value of singular. There is one boy and the related auxiliary verb "to be" is in the singular form (is).
In sentence 2, the form of "boy" has changed to "boys", giving its "number" the value of plural. There is more than one boy and the related "to be" is in the plural form (are).
In the above example, the "number" of "boy" influences the form of boy, and also influences the form of a related word (be). "Number" is a "grammatical category".
English has over twenty grammatical categories. Below we list the most common ones for English learners and summarise their main features.
The noun is a part of speech which unites words with the general categorical meaning of substance, or thingness. Nouns are the most numerous class of words (42% of all words)`
The class of nouns is constituted by the following grammatical categories: Number (singular , plural); Case (common and possessive); Gender (masculine, feminine, neutral)
Gender of nouns may be defined by 3 ways:
1)system of personal pronouns (he, she, it);2) special suffixes -er(-or) , -ess (waitress);
3) lexical units which express the idea of gender (niece – nephew; bull – cow)
Common gender. Some nouns which can may both a female or a male person they belong to so call common gender (doctor, president). Animate nouns: he , she. Inanimate nouns - it.
The grammatical category of number in the English noun presents a specific linguistic reflection of quantitative relations between homogeneous objects of reality conceptualized by the human mind. It is constituted by the binary privative opposition of singular and plural forms.

From the point of view of their number characteristics the English nouns fall into two classes: countable (исчисл) and uncountable. Uncountable nouns are further subdivided into two groups: The group of Singularia Tantum includes: Names of abstract notions (love, friendship); Names of mass materials (bread, butter, sugar); Names of some collective inanimate objects (foliage, machinery); Names of sciences and professional activities (medicine, architecture); Nouns of heterogeneous semantics. This is a limited group and includes such nouns as: hair, advice, knowledge, money, information, news. The group of Pluralia Tantum nouns includes: Nouns denoting objects consisting of two parts (trousers, spectacles); Nouns denoting results of repeated processes (savings, labours, belongings); Nouns of multitude (police, gentry, poultry, cattle) Nouns of various semantics (oats, outskirts, clothes)

The grammatical category of case in English nouns. Case is a grammatical category which marks the semantic role of the noun in the sentence and finds a grammatical expression in the language.

The roles played by the noun in the sentence in its relations with the verb and other parts of the sentence may find different expression in different languages. In highly inflectional, synthetic languages these relations are expressed morphologically, by inflexions. Case relations may also be expressed syntactically: by the position of the noun in the sentence in its reference to the position of the verb and also by prepositions which play the same role as inflections.
In morphology, plurals are most often formed with the addition of /s/ or /es/. Some exceptions change the word ending before adding the morpheme. For example, leaf becomes leaves, changing the /f/ to a /v/ before the /es/ is attached.

2.1.Noun
The category of case of the English noun is constituted by the binary privative opposition of the Common and Possessive cases. The formal marker of the Possessive case is the morpheme ‘s.
The most common syntagmatic meanings of the Possessive case are the following: pure possessivity (my sister’s money); agent, or subject of the action (my brother’s arrival); object of the action (the criminal’s arrival); authorship (Shakespeare’s sonnets); destination (a sailor’s uniform); measure (a day’s wait); location (at the dean’s); description, or comparison (a lion’s courage).
The finite verbs in the contrasted languages has six common morphological categories which are realized partly with the help of synthetic (simple) means (by inflections) and partly through different analytical (compound, consists of at least two verbal elements) forms. Thus the categories of person and number are realized in both contrasted languages synthetically, whereas the category of tense is realized both synthetically and analytically. Verbs present a system of finite and non-finite forms.
The non-finite forms (or verbals) are four in number, they are: the infinitive, the gerund, the present participle, the past participle.
The verb in its finite form possesses the morphological categories of person (особа), number (число), tense (час), aspect (вид), voice (стан) and mood (спосіб).
Category of person expresses the relation of the action and its doer (agent) to the speaker, showing if the action is performed by the speaker (1st person), someone addressed by the speaker, addressee (2nd person) or someone/ something other than the speaker or the person addressed (the 3rd person).
Category of number shows whether the action is performed by one or more than one persons or non-person (for to be: am/is/are; was/were). We find three persons and two numbers in finite verbs.
The category of tense in English (as well as in Ukrainian and Russian) expresses the relationship between the time of the action and the time of speaking. Time and tense are not the same thing. ‘Time’ (consisting of past, present and future) is a concept; tense is a grammatical device. Unlike Ukrainian, where there are three tenses: Present, Future and Past, English has two distinct tense forms: Present tense and Past tense, though plenty of ways of talking about future. Besides, there is one more tense in English, the so-called future in the past, when a future situation is viewed from some moment in the past.
In English, the present simple is the unmarked tense. This means it is used for very general time where specific marking for non-present time is unimportant and so unnecessary. To put this another way, any period that includes the moment of speaking (whether extending into the past or the future) can be regarded as present time and use a present tense.
The past simple, marked usually by inflection, is a marked tense. Conceptually, the present tense form ties the situation described closely to the situation of utterance: I live here now. The past tense form makes the situation described more remote from the situation of utterance: I lived there then. The situations in the future are treated differently. They are inherently non-factual, but can be considered as either relatively certain (i.e. perceived as close to happening) or unlikely or even impossible (i.e. perceived as remote from happening). The verb form that is traditionally called ‘the future tense’ is actually expressed via modal verb which indicates the relative possibility of an event: I will live here.
A noun (from Latin nōmen 'name')[1] is a word that generally functions as the name of a specific object or set of objects, such as living creatures, places, actions, qualities, states of existence, or ideas.[2][note 1]
Lexical categories (parts of speech) are defined in terms of the ways in which their members combine with other kinds of expressions. The syntactic rules for nouns differ between languages. In English, nouns are those words which can occur with articles and attributive adjectives and can function as the head of a noun phrase. "As far as we know, every language makes a grammatical distinction that looks like a noun verb distinction."[3]

2.2.Aspect
Aspect perfective or progressive. In order to talk about aspect, we have to look inside the situation.
In terms of its internal dimensions, a situation may be represented as fixed or changing, it may be treated as lasting for only a moment or having duration, and it can be viewed as complete or as ongoing. These are aspectual distinctions. The grammatical expression of aspect is accomplished via the perfect or progressive forms of the verb. If we want to emphasize that the action or state:
Is in some way completed or achieved, though still relevant, this is called perfective aspect and is indicated by the use of HAVE + past participle of the lexical verb. I have written the letter (so now I can send it).
Is/was in progress or temporary or uncompleted, this is called progressive aspect and is indicated by using BE + present participle. I am/was writing the letter.
Voice: active or passive. A distinction between active and passive is often called a distinction of voice. It offers different ways of focusing attention on various parts of information.
When you talk about the person or thing that performs an action, you use the active voice. Mr Smith locks the gate at 6 o’clock every night. The storm destroyed dozens of trees. I deny that, said Joan. We know you’ve been cheating us. Why have you done it? Thus, the active voice shows that the person or thing denoted by the subject of a sentence is the agent (the doer of an action) expressed by the predicate verb.
When you want to focus on the person or thing that is affected by an action, rather than the person or thing that performs the action, you use the passive voice. The gate is locked at 6 o’clock every night. Dozens of trees were destroyed. The news will be announced after dinner. The child knew that she was being praised. Nearly all the furniture will be taken out of the room. I was not allowed to chat. Trespassers will be prosecuted. The passive voice serves to show that the person or thing denoted by the subject of a sentence is not the agent (the doer of the action) expressed by the predicate verb but is the object of this action. The subject of the Passive verb does not act but is acted upon, it undergoes an action. To form the passive voice, all tenses use the corresponding active tense of BE + past participle. The chair was broken in the fight. Only transitive verbs can have a passive form.
indicative (for facts), imperative (for requests, instructions) and subjunctive (for non-facts, hypotheses, and suppositions) is usually called a distinction of mood.
The imperative is the same as the base form of verb. You use the imperative to ask or tell someone to do something, or to give advice, warnings, or instructions on how to do something. Start when you hear the bell. Don’t go so fast. Pass the salt. Hurry up!

There are few subjunctive forms in modern English, which usually finds other ways of indicating that the events being talked about are uncertain or hypothetical. There are two types of subjunctive:
Base of the verb for all verbs and all persons is used to express wishes. God save the Queen! Bless you! Long live the President! Heaven help us!
Were-subjunctive. The verb BE can use WERE for all persons in certain constructions.
If I were rich, I would change the world. If only I were young again. Suppose she were to win the championship.

Chapter lll
NOUNS
In elementary school you probably learned that a noun refers to a person, place, or thing. In addition, nouns name qualities, feelings, concepts, activities, and measures.
Persons: Stephanie, Dr. Edelstein, teacher, accountant
Places: Chicago, island, Italy, college
Things: novel, surfboard, bicycle, horse
Qualities: patience, honesty, initiative, enthusiasm
Feelings: happiness, anger, confusion, sadness
Concepts: knowledge, freedom, friendship, travel
Activities: snowboarding, dancing, management, eating
Measures: day, week, inch, kilometer, millions
Nouns are important words in our language. Sentences revolve around nouns because these words function both as subjects, and as objects of verbs. To determine whether a word is really a noun, try using it with the verb is or are. Notice that all the nouns listed here would make sense if used in this way: Stephanie is young, Chicago is in Illinois, horses are beautiful, dancing is fun, and so on.
Nouns can be common or proper; proper nouns require a capital letter.
— Common: book, apple, crayon
— Proper: Houston, Mr. Brown, the Bible
Nouns can be singular or plural.
— Singular: bird, road, wish, army, crisis, Mrs. Brown
Making a noun plural usually involves adding an “s” or “es” to the singular noun, but there are many exceptions.
— Plural: birds, roads, wishes, armies, crises, the Browns.
Add -s to the end of most nouns. For example: cat/cats, umbrella/umbrellas.
1- Add -es to the end of a noun ending in ch, s, sh, x, or z. For example: church/churches, loss/losses.

2- Drop the -y and add -ies to to a noun ending in a consonant followed by -y. For example: penny/pennies, candy/candies.
3- Change f to v and add -es to many nouns ending in f or fe. For example: knife/knives, thief/thieves.
4- Some nouns change in unpredictable ways when they become plural. For example, child/children, foot/feet.
5- Some nouns do not change when they become plural. For example, deer/deer, sheep/sheep
Some nouns are made up of two or more words put together. These are called compound nouns or compound words. Examples include:
thunderstorm teardrop bumblebee
sunshine dishwasher daydream
firefighter baseball sunset
b- Compound Nouns
A compound noun is made up of two or more words sed together as a single noun.
— The parts of a compound noun may be written as one word,as separate words,o r as a hyphenated word :


3.1.Categories
Grammatical category refers to a set of specific syntactic properties of words that can cause those words and/or other related words to change in form for grammatical reasons (ensuring agreement between words). The various kinds of grammatical categories include the following: number, definiteness, tense and aspect, case, person, gender and mood.
Number
The category NUMBER merely indicates the numerable property (singularity or plurality). It is a grammatical category of nouns, pronouns, and adjective and verb agreement that expresses count distinctions (such as "one", "two", or "three or more").
In English, the two number categories are singular and plural.
Word Type
Number Category
Singular Example
Plural Example
Noun
cat, mouse
cats, mice
Pronoun
I, me, you, he, him, she, her, it
we, us, you, they, them
Adjective


this, that, a, an, my, your, his, her, its
these, those, our, your, their
Verb
am, is, was, has, I play, he plays
Are, were, have, they play
Sepedi and other African languages uses noun class system to determine the number category. The odd number classes present singular nouns and the even number classes present the plural nouns. Number is a grammatical category of nouns, pronouns, and concord agreement.
In linguistics, a grammatical category or grammatical feature is a property of items within the grammar of a language. Within each category there are two or more possible values (sometimes called grammemes), which are normally mutually exclusive. Frequently encountered grammatical categories include:

Tense, the placing of a verb in a time frame, which can take values such as present and past
Number, with values such as singular, plural, and sometimes dual, trial, paucal, uncountable or partitive, inclusive or exclusive
Gender, with values such as masculine, feminine and neuter
Noun classes, which are more general than just gender, and include additional classes like: animated, humane, plants, animals, things, and immaterial for concepts and verbal nouns/actions, sometimes as well shapes
Locative relations, which some languages would represent using grammatical cases or tenses, or by adding a possibly agglutinated lexeme such as a preposition, adjective, or particle.
Although the use of terms varies from author to author, a distinction should be made between grammatical categories and lexical categories. Lexical categories (considered syntactic categories) largely correspond to the parts of speech of traditional grammar, and refer to nouns, adjectives, etc.
A phonological manifestation of a category value (for example, a word ending that marks "number" on a noun) is sometimes called an exponent.
Grammatical relations define relationships between words and phrases with certain parts of speech, depending on their position in the syntactic tree. Traditional relations include subject, object, and indirect object.
A category listing is a list of different product categories such as menswear, womenswear, and childrenswear. Dynamic category listing software allows you to create and utilize any type of category easily on a retailing website.


3.2Grammatical category of noun
In traditional structural grammar, grammatical categories are semantic distinctions; this is reflected in a morphological or syntactic paradigm. But in generative grammar, which sees meaning as separate from grammar, they are categories that define the distribution of syntactic elements.[1] For structuralists such as Roman Jakobson grammatical categories were lexemes that were based on binary oppositions of "a single feature of meaning that is equally present in all contexts of use". Another way to define a grammatical category is as a category that expresses meanings from a single conceptual domain, contrasts with other such categories, and is expressed through formally similar expressions.[2] Another definition distinguishes grammatical categories from lexical categories, such that the elements in a grammatical category have a common grammatical meaning – that is, they are part of the language's grammatical structure.[3]
In linguistics, a grammatical category or grammatical feature is a property of items within the grammar of a language. Within each category there are two or more possible values (sometimes called grammemes), which are normally mutually exclusive. Frequently encountered grammatical categories include:
Tense, the placing of a verb in a time frame, which can take values such as present and past
Number, with values such as singular, plural, and sometimes dual, trial, paucal, uncountable or partitive, inclusive or exclusive
Gender, with values such as masculine, feminine and neuter
Noun classes, which are more general than just gender, and include additional classes like: animated, humane, plants, animals, things, and immaterial for concepts and verbal nouns/actions, sometimes as well shapes
Locative relations, which some languages would represent using grammatical cases or tenses, or by adding a possibly agglutinated lexeme such as a preposition, adjective, or particle.
Although the use of terms varies from author to author, a distinction should be made between grammatical categories and lexical categories. Lexical categories (considered syntactic categories) largely correspond to the parts of speech of traditional grammar, and refer to nouns, adjectives, etc.
A phonological manifestation of a category value (for example, a word ending that marks "number" on a noun) is sometimes called an exponent.
Grammatical relations define relationships between words and phrases with certain parts of speech, depending on their position in the syntactic tree. Traditional relations include subject, object, and indirect object.
A given constituent of an expression can normally take only one value in each category. For example, a noun or noun phrase cannot be both singular and plural, since these are both values of the "number" category. It can, however, be both plural and feminine, since these represent different categories (number and gender).
Categories may be described and named with regard to the type of meanings that they are used to express. For example, the category of tense usually expresses the time of occurrence (e.g. past, present or future). However, purely grammatical features do not always correspond simply or consistently to elements of meaning, and different authors may take significantly different approaches in their terminology and analysis. For example, the meanings associated with the categories of tense, aspect and mood are often bound up in verb conjugation patterns that do not have separate grammatical elements corresponding to each of the three categories; see


Conclusion
Abstract: if we take Verb to discuss we can say that: according to content, verbs can be described as words denoting actions, the term "actions" embracing the meaning of activity (e.g. to walk, to speak, to play, to study), process (e.g. to sleep, to wait, to live), state (e.g. to be, to like, to know), relation (e.g. to consist, to resemble, to lack) and so on. According to form, verbs can be described as words that have certain grammatical features that are not shared by other parts of speech, e.g. they have the categories of tense, aspect, voice, etc. According to function, verbs can be defined as words making up the predicate of the sentence.
Conclusion. Thus an analytical form consists of two words — a structural word and a notional word — which form a very close, inseparable unit. It functions in English as the form of a single word by the side of synthetic forms (e.g. he works, he has worked, he worked, he was working, he had worked, etc.) The language environment of the young child is one where language is not separated from learning about the way the world operates. Children do not learn about the parts of language as described in a grammar book. They are completely uninterested in the names of word classes and verb tenses.
Grammar is made up of lots of little rules that work together to create a language. Since there are so many rules, you can’t expect to remember everything, especially not at once. No one can, not even professional writers and editors, who typically have at least three reference books and style manuals at their fingertips. Feel free to come back and reference the material taught in this course as often as you need.
If we were to approach sign language morphology from a simplistic and surface-oriented viewpoint, we would be confounded at once. Most of the word formation in sign languages does not consist of the linear affixation of concrete morphemes that bear a one-to-one correspondence with a meaning or grammatical function. Instead, the morphology of sign languages lends support from a different modality for the contemporary generative view of morphology – a morphological component that is word-based, and involves forms and processes that are often abstract and are not necessarily concatenative.
Verbal bases may be associated to partially specified skeletal templates to form various verbal aspects; certain verbal forms may be reduplicated and their movements altered to derive nouns; classifier morphemes associate non-concatenatively to movements and locations to create complex forms that depict locative relations and different path shapes and manners of motion.

Classical morphological properties are also found in sign languages. There are sequential affixes that evolved diachronically from free words in the sign languages we have studied. Derivation, inflection, and compounding are all attested in many sign languages. This means that productive word-internal processes for forming new lexemes and for marking syntactic relations among words are robust in sign languages, as they are in most spoken languages – a significant discovery for defining the human language faculty. The sign language system supports allomorphy as well – more than a single form for the same word partial.

LIST OF USED LITERATURE

Joan Bybee "Irrealis" as a Grammatical Category. Anthropological Linguistics , Vol. 40, No. 2 (Summer, 1998), pp. 257-271
What is a grammatical category? - SIL.org
"grammatical category" The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics. P. H. Matthews. Oxford University Press, 2007. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. Brown University. 31 March 2012
Brinton, Laurel J. The Structure of Modern English: A Linguistic Introduction. John Benjamins, 2000, Philadelphia.
Crystal, David. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics, 4th ed. Blackwell, 1997, Malden, Mass.
Payne, Thomas E. Describing Morphosyntax: A Guide for Field Linguists. Cambridge University Press, 1997, Cambridge, U.K.
Radford, Andrew. Minimalist Syntax: Exploring the Structure of English. Cambridge University Press, 2004, Cambridge, U.K.
Trask, R.L. Language and Linguistics: The Key Concepts, 2nd ed., ed. by Peter Stockwell. Routledge, 2007, London.