The republic of uzbekistan ministry of higher and secondary specialized education fergana state university faculty of foreign language department of english language and literature course work theme: comics shakespeare's tragedy done

Influence of Greek and Roman

Classical Greek drama was largely forgotten in Western Europe from the Middle Ages to the beginning of the 16th century. Medieval theatre was dominated by mystery plays, morality plays, farces and miracle plays. In Italy, the models for tragedy in the later Middle Ages were Roman, particularly the works of Seneca, interest in which was reawakened by the Paduan Lovato de' Lovati (1241–1309). His pupil Albertino Mussato (1261–1329), also of Padua, in 1315 wrote the Latin verse tragedy Eccerinis, which uses the story of the tyrant Ezzelino III da Romano to highlight the danger to Padua posed by Cangrande della Scala of Verona. It was the first secular tragedy written since Roman times, and may be considered the first Italian tragedy identifiable as a Renaissance work. The earliest tragedies to employ purely classical themes are the Achilles written before 1390 by Antonio Loschi of Vicenza (c.1365–1441) and the Progne of the Venetian Gregorio Correr (1409–1464) which dates from 1428–29.

In 1515 Gian Giorgio Trissino (1478–1550) of Vicenza wrote his tragedy Sophonisba in the vernacular that would later be called Italian. Drawn from Livy's account of Sophonisba, the Carthaginian princess who drank poison to avoid being taken by the Romans, it adheres closely to classical rules. It was soon followed by the Oreste and Rosmunda of Trissino's friend, the Florentine Giovanni di Bernardo Rucellai (1475–1525). Both were completed by early 1516 and are based on classical Greek models, Rosmunda on the Hecuba of Euripides, and Oreste on the Iphigenia in Tauris of the same author; like Sophonisba, they are in Italian and in blank (unrhymed) hendecasyllables. Another of the first of all modern tragedies is A Castro, by Portuguese poet and playwright António Ferreira, written around 1550 (but only published in 1587) in polymetric verse (most of it being blank hendecasyllables), dealing with the murder of Inês de Castro, one of the most dramatic episodes in Portuguese history. Although these three Italian plays are often cited, separately or together, as being the first regular tragedies in modern times, as well as the earliest substantial works to be written in blank hendecasyllables, they were apparently preceded by two other works in the vernacular: Pamfila or Filostrato e Panfila written in 1498 or 1508 by Antonio Cammelli (Antonio da Pistoia); and a Sophonisba by Galeotto del Carretto of 1502.

From about 1500 printed copies, in the original languages, of the works of Sophocles, Seneca, and Euripides, as well as comedic writers such as Aristophanes, Terence and Plautus, were available in Europe and the next forty years saw humanists and poets translating and adapting their tragedies. In the 1540s, the European university setting (and especially, from 1553 on, the Jesuit colleges) became host to a Neo-Latin theatre (in Latin) written by scholars. The influence of Seneca was particularly strong in its humanist tragedy. His plays, with their ghosts, lyrical passages and rhetorical oratory, brought a concentration on rhetoric and language over dramatic action to many humanist tragedies.

The most important sources for French tragic theatre in the Renaissance were the example of Seneca and the precepts of Horace and Aristotle (and contemporary commentaries by Julius Caesar Scaliger and Lodovico Castelvetro), although plots were taken from classical authors such as Plutarch, Suetonius, etc., from the Bible, from contemporary events and from short story collections (Italian, French and Spanish). The Greek tragic authors (Sophocles and Euripides) would become increasingly important as models by the middle of the 17th century. Important models were also supplied by the Spanish Golden Age playwrights Pedro Calderón de la Barca, Tirso de Molina and Lope de Vega, many of whose works were translated and adapted for the French stage.

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The question of whether Othello is a classical tragedy relies on two major factors, the first obviously being the content of the play itself which I will discuss later, the second the definition of what a classical tragedy actually is. A classical tragedy can be defined as a story of exceptional calamity leading to the death of a man of high estate. It was originally looked at by Aristotle, a great philosopher and dramatic critic of the fourth century BC. He stated that the chief characters of a tragic action should be persons of consequence, of exalted station. The leading personage should not be a man characterized by great virtue or great vice, but of a mixed nature, partly good and partly bad. His errors and weaknesses lead him into misfortune; this is precisely the formula for the tragic protagonist in Othello.

In accordance with the traditions of classical tragedy, most of Shakespeare’s famous tragedies involve the fall of a great leader. Othello is a slightly different kind of tragic hero, a general, but not a major figure in the government of the state. In many ways the play is more a tragedy of domestic life rather than of affairs of state.  As well as this, Aristotle maintained the importance of the sympathy and pathos felt towards the heroes of a tragic play, this is undoubtedly felt for both Othello and Desdemona in Othello and as such it can be argued that, in principle, Othello has the characteristics of a classical tragedy.

The portrayal of characters is particularly significant to defining the genre of a play as a tragedy. I have previously mentioned the crucial role of the protagonist; in Othellos case it is clear that we have Othello as the main male character, and therefore it is perhaps the characterisation of him and his development through the plot that is most crucial to the development of this discussion. Shakespeare has created, in Othello, a character consistent with traditional ideas of a classical tragic protagonist. The critic, F.R. Leavis[1] suggests that we should see Othello as a nearly faultless hero whose strength and virtue are turned against him; Iago himself tells of how he believes that Othello is of a constant, loving, noble nature, and his disintegration is consistent with Aristotle and others ideas of a classical tragedy. It is his classic tragic flaws  his pride and jealousy  that bring his downfall and the audience acknowledge the events in the play with a strong sense of pathos towards Othello, enhancing further his presentation as a tragic hero.

This will have been particularly true of the Elizabethan audiences that the play will have first been exhibited to. Othellos main strengths, such as honour, loyalty to ones army, and, as Leavis states, being the nobly massive man of action, the captain of men are those that the 17th century audience will have held in particularly high esteem considering their appreciation of the need for a general of this nature. When contrasted with Iago, the audiences favour bears even more strongly to Othello as Iago, with his constant, malicious betrayal of trust is the personification of the epitome of an Elizabethan delinquent. Othello is clearly the classical tragic hero that the title insinuates, even to the end as he is provided with the typical enlightenment of a tragic champion devastated, and the plot and supporting characters that surround him are equal to his role.

Shakespeares Othello is consistent not only with traditional, classical forms of tragedy such as the Greek tragedies analysed by Aristotle, but also with his own, Shakespearian tragedies and also Jacobean tragedy. Shakespearian tragedy often follows the simple structure whereby a high status person suffers increasingly as the play progresses, dieing at the end with some revelation of the cause and futility of their fate. They are also political, in that what happens to them affects the society in which they are present; we see this in plays such as Romeo and Juliet, and Macbeth. In Jacobean tragedy there is often a revenge plot at the centre of the action, and indeed in Othello we see the formulation of Iagos revenge as a result both of Othellos promotion of the great arithmetician, One Michael Cassio and the possibility that twixt my [Iagos] sheets He has done my office, in other words the rumour circulated in Venice that Iagos wife, Emelia, has cheated with Othello.

Again, like many Jacobean tragedies, Othello is set in a place that Shakespearian audiences will have perceived as vice-ridden, decadent and full of villainy, perversion and secret love affairs which broke all the rules of society. These tragic comparisons all stand in support of Othello being a tragedy, though whether it is a classic tragedy lies more in the similarities it has with the ancient Greek and Roman tragedies such as those written by Seneca, a collection of his work having been recently published and much enjoyed by the Elizabethan audiences.

The basis of the tragedy of Othello lies principally in the character presentation, particularly of Othello, Desdemona and Iago. These three carry the plot between them, along with Michael Cassio though he can be seen as simply an instrument that is used both by Iago and Shakespeare himself in order to make the plot work. The tragic hero, Othello, is presented as good, honest and brave. His virtues include his ability to have risen from a slave to the rank of general, and governor of Cyprus. The man is clearly trusted, and in turn trusts, which is to be his downfall. Iago sees this weakness early on in the play, stating at the end of Act I The Moor is of a free and open nature, That thinks men honest that but seem to be so. Iagos intelligence is clearly portrayed from the start. In the opening scene he converses with Roderigo in eloquent speech, epithets of war; And, in conclusion, Nonsuits my mediators and later he is seen to exploit each character in turn for his own benefit, from his own wife, Emilia, to the valiant Moor himself.

Interestingly, it is Desdemona alone who seems to provide Iago with difficulties in conversation. He attempts to avoid direct dialogue, particularly on the matter of revealing himself in anyway. At the start of act II, Desdemona challenges Iago to reveal his opinion of her, and though a jovial atmosphere is maintained throughout, Iago avoids as best he can any direct revelation into his opinions, do not put me tot; For I am nothing but critical. The portrayal of the super-subtle Venetian, Desdemona, as a potential challenger to Iagos quest creates further dramatic and, importantly, tragic tension as the audience wait with baited breath to discover if she will determine the cause of her husbands jealousy. The fact that Desdemona is so virtuous and is portrayed almost as a martyr for goodness, in that her attempts to reinstate the innocent Cassio lead only to her eventual death, add to the tragedy of the play, bringing the play to a heart-rending climax with the deaths of the most innocent and/or exploited characters in the play; Desdemona, Emelia, Roderigo and Othello. Iagos exploitation of Roderigo and Othello, in particular, is clear to the audience principally thanks to the two monologues he makes, revealing his plans and the aims to which he acts. The true tragedy of the play lies in the helplessness that the audience feels as they behold the gradual demise of all of the characters in the play except for the villain, Iago.

In conclusion, Othello does fit into the boundaries of a classic tragedy. The characters fit perfectly into the roles of hero and villain, and the plot conforms to the tragic norms of Greek, Shakespearian and Jacobean tragedy which sees the heros tragic flaw exploited and his fall accompanied by a realisation of the reasons for which he now suffers. The Elizabethan audience will have acknowledged the tragic nature of the plot, and the treachery and betrayal embedded in it will have created great dramatic tension throughout.

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The dramatic form of classical tragedy derives from the tragic plays of ancient Athens, which depicted the downfall of a hero or famous character of Greek legend. The hero would struggle against overwhelming fate, and his defeat would be so noble that he wins the moral victory over the forces that destroy him. A tragedy evoked pity and terror in the audience; it was a catharsis, or washing clean of the soul, which left the spectator trembling but purified.

Aristotle proposed the tragic unities of Place, Time, and Action, that is, the whole tragedy would take place in a single location, for example a house or a city square (this included messengers who came in from elsewhere), it would happen during the course of one day (including speeches about events which had happened in the past), and it would be a single story, without sub- plots.

Compared with these strict rules, Shakespeare's tragedy is a more relaxed genre, but Othello much more than, for example, the sprawling Hamlet, observes the spirit of Aristotle. Othello, apart from Act I in Venice, is located entirely within the fortress at Cyprus. Although logically the play covers an unspecified time lapse of, we presume, two or three weeks, it proceeds, more or less, by major scenes through the hours of the day, starting in Venice with the elopement after midnight, the Senate meeting at dawn, then at Cyprus with the morning storm and afternoon landings and developments, the fateful drinking party in the early evening and the murder at bed time. This is not to say that everything happens in the same day; it obviously cannot, but the impression is of an abstract day unfolding.

The plot is fairly unified, focusing on Othello and his fate, and dealing with other people and events only in so far as they are relevant to this focus. Othello is about as near as Shakespeare gets to classical tragedy.

The Tragic Flaw

A. C. Bradley saw Shakespearean tragedy characterized by the "tragic flaw," the internal imperfection in the hero that brings him down. His downfall becomes his own doing, and he is no longer, as in classical tragedy, the helpless victim of fate. Some say that Othello's tragic flaw was jealousy which flared at suspicion and rushed into action unchecked by calm common sense. A more modern interpretation would say that Othello's tragic flaw was that he had internalized, that is taken into himself, the prejudices of those who surrounded him. In his heart he had come to believe what they believed: that a black man is an unattractive creature, not quite human, unworthy of love. Thinking this, he could not believe that Desdemona could truly love him for himself. Her love must be a pretense, or a flawed and corrupted emotion. Iago hinted at these ideas, and Othello rushed to accept them, because they echoed his deepest fears and insecurities.

The Play's Structure

Shakespearean tragedy usually works on a five-part structure, corresponding to the five acts: Part One, the exposition, outlines the situation, introduces the main characters, and begins the action. Part Two, the development, continues the action and introduces complications. Part Three, the crisis (or climax), brings everything to a head. In this part, a change of direction occurs or understanding is precipitated. Part Four includes further developments leading inevitably to Part Five, in which the final crisis of action or revelation and resolution are explained. Othello follows this pattern.

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Although Othello is a tragic play in nature, Shakespeare's subtle use of comedy in the play's various scenes adds effect to its overall tragic downfall. In a standard comic play, one would expect a story of love and courtship with some deceptive twist of plot, all worked out to a happy ending through good fortune and clever thinking. However, in Othello, comedy appears as a precursor to tragedy, used cleverly by Shakespeare in manipulating the perspective of readers and spectators alike. The elements of comedy throughout the play, present the audience with the expected comic conventions gone wrong, all twisted into a deceptive plot which highlights the tragedy. Why would Shakespeare make use of any forms of comedy in a play devoted solely to tragedy? Although one would guess that comic relief lightens the effects of tragedy, it is in fact the opposite. Shakespeare cleverly diverts the reader's attention through his comic scenes by making the play look like a comedy instead of a tragedy. As a result, the reader begins to expect a happy-go-lucky ending, where they are actually stunned by how tragic it is.
             One instance of comedy is played out in Act II, Scene i, where the reunion of Desdemona and Othello in Cyprus is about to take place. Iago and Desdemona enter a heated argument over women and their place in society. The argument is mainly comical in that its point is ridiculous and its logic is lacking. For example, Iago states that women "rise to play, and go to bed to work." Iago perceives women by saying they are lazy in all matters except sex. His nonstop reference to sex adds comic relief to the scene and helps portray Iago's vice. Desdemona plays along, laughing as Iago criticizes women, adding comedy to the scene. Shakespeare mainly uses such an instance of comedy to leave the roots of Iago's evil unexplained, while showing the fruits of his evil in full. Shakespeare utilizes.  The characterization of many of the characters, especially Othello, was fairly different in both films, the directors evidently adding in their own personal perceptions of appearance with use of clever camera work and visual symbols. In the 1951 Welles film, Othello is a towering, very sturdy man with an extremely low-pitched, echoing voice and wears a long, fur coat with a gold necklace with no evidence to other jewelry. When Othello speaks to Desdemona in the moments before he kills her, his face is completely surrounded by shadow with only him face visible. The intense mood is heightened by the foreboding music which gradually gets louder and louder up until he speaks to Desdemona. When he speaks, it is slowly and in a very deep voice, which slightly echoes in a foreboding way. Shadow in used a lot with Othello's character, never having his entire face exposed to light, always half hidden with a shadowThe camera is used well to portray Othellos immense size, but is also used to belittle him in the shot after he has killed Desdemona. In the scene of Othello's death, he is behind bars symbolizing being trapped with nowhere to go and he uses his own dagger to stab himself then dizzy, hectic camera work is used in the moments after and gives a sense of frantic regret and panic.
             In the 1995 Parker film Othello is a sexy, exotic character with a superb physique. Othello is exotic, sporting chunky rings, necklaces and bangles and having a baldhead with tattoos and unusual markings. In the scene where Othello kills Desdemona, Othello is wearing a toga-like garment accentuating his exotic look even more.

Comedy

Etymology

Tragic Comic Masks of Ancient Greek Theatre represented in the Hadrian's Villa mosaic

The word "comedy" is derived from the Classical Greek κωμῳδία kōmōidía, which is a compound of κῶμος kômos (revel) and ᾠδή ōidḗ (singing; ode). The adjective "comic" (Greek κωμικός kōmikós), which strictly means that which relates to comedy is, in modern usage, generally confined to the sense of "laughter-provoking". Of this, the word came into modern usage through the Latin comoedia and Italian commedia and has, over time, passed through various shades of meaning.

The Greeks and Romans confined their use of the word "comedy" to descriptions of stage-plays with happy endings. Aristotle defined comedy as an imitation of men worse than the average (where tragedy was an imitation of men better than the average). However, the characters portrayed in comedies were not worse than average in every way, only insofar as they are Ridiculous, which is a species of the Ugly. The Ridiculous may be defined as a mistake or deformity not productive of pain or harm to others; the mask, for instance, that excites laughter is something ugly and distorted without causing pain. In the Middle Ages, the term expanded to include narrative poems with happy endings. It is in this sense that Dante used the term in the title of his poem, La Commedia.

As time progressed, the word came more and more to be associated with any sort of performance intended to cause laughter. During the Middle Ages, the term "comedy" became synonymous with satire, and later with humour in general.

Aristotle's Poetics was translated into Arabic in the medieval Islamic world, where it was elaborated upon by Arabic writers and Islamic philosophers, such as Abu Bishr, and his pupils Al-Farabi, Avicenna, and Averroes. They disassociated comedy from Greek dramatic representation and instead identified it with Arabic poetic themes and forms, such as hija (satirical poetry). They viewed comedy as simply the "art of reprehension", and made no reference to light and cheerful events, or to the troubling beginnings and happy endings associated with classical Greek comedy.

After the Latin translations of the 12th century, the term "comedy" gained a more general meaning in medieval literature.

In the late 20th century, many scholars preferred to use the term laughter to refer to the whole gamut of the comic, in order to avoid the use of ambiguous and problematically defined genres such as the grotesque, irony, and satire.^[9][10]

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This article is about the genre of dramatic works. For the performing art, see Comedy (drama). For other uses, see Comedy (disambiguation).

In a modern sense, comedy (from the Greek: κωμῳδία, kōmōidía) is a genre of fiction that refers to any discourse or work generally intended to be humorous or amusing by inducing laughter, especially in theatre, television, film, stand-up comedy, books and novels or any other medium of entertainment. The origins of the term are found in Ancient Greece. In the Athenian democracy, the public opinion of voters was influenced by the political satire performed by the comic poets at the theaters. The theatrical genre of Greek comedy can be described as a dramatic performance which pits two groups or societies against each other in an amusing agon or conflict. Northrop Frye depicted these two opposing sides as a "Society of Youth" and a "Society of the Old." A revised view characterizes the essential agon of comedy as a struggle between a relatively powerless youth and the societal conventions that pose obstacles to his hopes. In this struggle, the youth is understood to be constrained by his lack of social authority, and is left with little choice but to take recourse in ruses which engender very dramatic irony which provokes laughter.

Satire and political satire use comedy to portray persons or social institutions as ridiculous or corrupt, thus alienating their audience from the object of their humor. Parody subverts popular genres and forms, critiquing those forms without necessarily condemning them.

Other forms of comedy include screwball comedy, which derives its humor largely from bizarre, surprising (and improbable) situations or characters, and black comedy, which is characterized by a form of humor that includes darker aspects of human behavior or human nature. Similarly scatological humor, sexual humor, and race humor create comedy by violating social conventions or taboos in comic ways. A comedy of manners typically takes as its subject a particular part of society (usually upper-class society) and uses humor to parody or satirize the behavior and mannerisms of its members. Romantic comedy is a popular genre that depicts burgeoning romance in humorous terms and focuses on the foibles of those who are falling in love.

Bibliography

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    ^ "Shakespeare and the Tragic Virtue". www.jsu.edu. Retrieved 2018-05-03.