The Wild Animal’s Story: Nonhuman Protagonists in Twentieth-Century Canadian Literature through the Lens of Practical Zoocriticism
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autonomous subjects of a life
, Lawrence’s use of the hunters’ perspectives to construct them as objects is disturbing. To the humans the pumas were never Allmark-Kent 190 subjects of a lif e with inherent value. As Lawrence’s narration indicates, the hunters can only perceive them as objects with financial value. The label ‘trophy’ is replaced, however, when the puma is categorized as ‘pest’ or ‘vermin.’ The puma’s autonomy (so easily erased when seen only as an object) is now a threat to human interests. Taggart and Cousins’ economic motivations do not change, however. They understand how to exploit the speciesist power of the label: The cat, he explained, was not actually protected by law in that region, although it was not legal to hunt at this season. ‘But they’re pests, those cats. They take sheep and calves and even our own horses. And they kill a whole lot of game. So nobody really gives a darn if one of them gets to e at a nice lead pill, you know?’ (14) Following the spoor, they were led to the cave and from there to the by- now-sparse remains of the moose. Excited by their discovery, they radioed the news to the lodge, reporting the moose kill and giving it as their opinion that unless the adult puma was not killed, she would continue taking the ungulate prey, which, in the view of the guides, rightfully belonged to the High Country Safaris clients. (123) Thus, they construct the puma as both an object and an animal. The hunters exploit the category of vermin, which relies on the autonomy of wild predators, in order to remove restrictions on their ability to keep killing pumas whose body parts they can sell. This contradictory representation is exaggerated further when they construe the tawny puma as a ‘man-eater.’ Now the autonomy of this ‘object’ apparently positions humans as victims and prey. Cousins and Taggart fabricate the story of an encounter with the tawny puma, which they know will feed into speciesist fears: The next morning, an exaggerated report of the affair appeared in a leading daily newspaper under the headline SAVAGE LION ATTACKS MAN. The story as quickly picked up by the wire services and flashed across the continent. The attendant notoriety turned Walter Taggart into something of a heroic figure, with Steve Cousins lauded as the ‘daring rescue r.’ (37) Allmark-Kent 191 Stereotypes of dangerous predators enable the story to escalate quickly: Andrew Bell, delighted with so much publicity, took one of the television reporters and his crew for a flight over the country, circling the area where the cave was located and flying a wide search over the puma’s presumed territory. Filming and recording in flight, the fast-talking, deep-voiced commentator concluded his report: ‘Somewhere beneath our wings skulks the vicious mountain lion that cunningly ambushed Mr. Walter Taggart and mauled him so savagely that doctors had to cut off his right arm. Even as we are flying over this limitless wilderness during what has turned out to be a hopeless search for the killer cat, the few hardy people who live scattered across this inhospitable county are keeping to their homes, their doors locked and their guns at the ready, fearful of their lives.’ (37) Exploitation of the label ‘man-eater’ benefits Taggart, Cousins, and their boss Andrew Bell: Quick to take advantage of the unexpected and totally free publicity, Bell had immediately applied for, and easily obtained, official permission to expand his licensed hunting area; he was also allowed to construct three new lodges strategically located in his new territory. As a result, he obtained exclusive guiding rights to a region of wilderness that was 150 miles in width and 250 miles in length. With money readily loaned to him by the bank, Bell set about expanding his wilderness empire. He hired building crews and bought another Cessna. Construction of the lodges had been started three weeks after Taggart was flown to the hospital. […] Bell had received so many applications from would-be clients that had had been forced to turn down many. All of the applicants were wealthy men and women who ostensibly wanted to hunt and fish, but who were just as eager to experience the vicarious thrill of visiting the region where lived the puma that the press had labelled as a man-eater. (85-6). Lawrence defamiliarizes myths of the hunter as a ‘heroic outdoorsman’ by exposing the cynical economic motivations of these three characters. He also reveals the ease with which Taggart and Cousins can construe the puma as trophy, pest, or man-eater with ease. As revealed by Seton and Bodsworth, a single species ist label can ‘justify’ the deaths of countless individuals. The use of all three labels enables Cousins and Taggart to legitimize almost any action. As we can see, the nature of the animal advocacy message has transformed since Seton and Roberts created the genre. Whilst they made Allmark-Kent 192 general pleas on behalf of all hunted animals, and Haig-Brown and Bodsworth demonstrated the specific causes of species loss, Lawrence explores the consequences of Canada’s complex relationship with its wild animals. The exploitation/protection dynamic, discussed previously in this thesis, is epitomized by Bell’s relationship with the “Victoria headquarters of the fish and game department” (250). As he boasts to Cousins and Taggart: “‘I’ve decided to call the fish and game people in Victoria and ask them to declare open season on all cougars in our region. I’m sure they’ll agree . . . I’ve some influence there, you know” (242). A century after Seton and Roberts created the wild animal story to advocate on behalf of wild animals, i t seems that the country’s nonhuman population is still considered an economic resource: “Politically, the outfitters [like Bell] had a lot of clout […] for they employed local people as guides and in other capacities and were thought to contribute to the economic well- being of isolated northern regions” (242). Thus, although it is necessary for Lawrence to incorporate a secondary human narrative, he produces a more nuanced conservation message than other texts. Indeed, this complex interplay of motivations and discourses is entirely absent from the twentieth-century, speculative zoocentric narratives. However, this leads us inevitably back to the question: who saves the puma? Towards the end of the novel, Lawrence introduces Lansing and Carew as they begin “their own campaign, condemning the open season and, especially, calling for the full protection of the white puma” (243). They succeed, and the white puma is one of the few wild animal protagonists to survive his or her own story. If the puma’s security is so reliant on human intervention, can it still be said that he resists victimization? I suggest that, when read carefully, it becomes clear that he does. As Lawrence indicates, both the near-extinction of Allmark-Kent 193 pumas in North America and the persecution of the white puma (and his family) are human problems which can only be resolved through human solutions. While campaigners like Lansing and Carew can make progress in the short term, a true change requires the ethical transformation of those who committed (or were complicit in) the violence. Through an act which makes his autonomy and individuality knowable to humans, the white puma triggers the conversion of Steve Cousins. As part of their campaign, Lansing and Carew attempt to find proof of the white puma. When Lansing is out searching, the puma finds her. Perhaps due to his specific experience with Taggart, Cousins, and their dogs, the puma perceives Lansing as a curiosity rather than an enemy: “her body odor telegraphed neutrality ” (271, emphasis added). Over the following days, the two meet again in a few wary, but nonviolent encounters. After one such interaction, the puma flees at the sound of the hunters and Cousins accidentally shoots Lansing in the leg. After Taggart and the dogs move away, the puma returns to investigate the cries and yells: Suddenly from somewhere above and behind Lansing, the deep, menacing growl of the enraged mountain lion burst on the silence. Almost in the same instant, the white puma’s body appeared as if in flight. The cat was so fast, Lansing was barely aware of its leap. […] Instinctively, she screamed at the puma. “No! Don’t do it!” Perhaps it was the unexpected sound of the woman’s now shrill voice that caused the puma to land short of his target, instead of striking Cousins in midleap. Perhaps the highly intelligent animal understood the meaning of Lansing’s cry. […] Instead of hitting the man squarely with this lethal paws, he give Cousins a heard blow with his right shoulder before touching down in the water. (294-5) By allowing the puma’s motivations to remain unknown, Lawrence avoids any reassuring anthropocentric fantasies. His decision not to attack the man he had been hunting suggests something of the puma’s individuality and autonomy. Indeed, Cousins’ interpretation of the events enable him to see the puma as the |
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