The Wild Animal’s Story: Nonhuman Protagonists in Twentieth-Century Canadian Literature through the Lens of Practical Zoocriticism
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Defamiliarizing Speciesism In two connected stories from Watchers, “The Little Wolf of the Pool” and “The Little Wolf of the Air,” Roberts reinforces the fact that knowing something of an animal’s life allows us to contextualize the individual—to see a unique being, and not an ‘object.’ The two stories narrate the life of a female dragonfly, first as a naiad (the aquatic larval stage) and then as an adult. In the water, we observe her killing a tadpole and a minnow. The two deaths are fairly unpleasant, but they are not given much significance because our concern is for the young dragonfly, who Roberts playfully describes as the “little monster” (67). In the next story, however, we witness the fully-grown dragonfly being eaten by an adult frog. By introducing a human observer, Roberts illustrates the importance of both animal individuality and speciesism to our fickle sympathies: The dragon-fly had been at her business [laying eggs] for perhaps two minutes when the man saw a large frog rise to the surface just below her. He liked all dragon-flies, —and for this one in particular he had developed a personal interest. Suddenly and violently he jumped to his feet, hoping to chase her away from the approaching doom. But he was just too late. As he jumped, the big frog sprang, and a long, darting, cleft tongue clutched the busy [dragon]fly, dragging her down. (79-80, emphasis added) The man’s concern for this particular dragonfly, who he has been watching for some time, mimics that of readers —since we, too, have been observing her. Roberts reminds us of the arbitrary nature of that concern (why do we not care for the frog instead?) with the final words of his story : “He [the frog] had avenged (though about that he cared as little as he knew) the lives of a thousand tadpoles ” (80, emphasis added). By providing this wider perspective, then, Roberts challenges our subjective relationships with species, as well as individuals. After all, the man “liked all dragon-flies” and, as one of the more attractive and charismatic insect species, it is likely that the reader does too. Yet the moral ambivalence of this ending mimics our often illogical and uneven Allmark-Kent 118 approaches to species conservation. Indeed, his use of ‘wolf’ in both titles makes this connection difficult to ignore, as does his comparison between the impact of dragonfly and wolf predation: “With appetites insatiable, ferocity implacable, strength and courage prodigious for their stature, to call them little wolves of their air is perhaps to wrong the ravening grey pack whose howlings strike terror down the corridors of the winter forest” (74, emphasis added). In other words, the predator-prey relationships that cause us moral concern are often motivated by anthropocentric priories —whether it’s the preservation of a species useful as ‘game’ or as an ‘attractive’ curiosity. Hence, these two stories contribute to Roberts’ attempts to unpack some of our s peciesist attitudes, particularly towards ‘ugly’ or ‘uncharismatic’ animals. Although he seems to use emotive language that places value-judgements on individuals, these are almost always applied to his protagonists. Moreover, this is typically conveyed through the eyes of another animal. In the first story, when the attractive dragonfly is still a naiad, her description is delivered from the doomed tadpole’s perspective. He watches the “fantastic-looking creature” swim into view: “The whole front of its head—part of the eyes, and all the face—was covered by a smooth, cleft, shieldlike mask [...] giving the creature an expressio n both mysterious and terrible” (67). I suggest that, like his playfully grandiose ti tles, Roberts’ language of alienness and monstrosity may be an extension of his speculative explorations of different animal perspectives. For instance, the young salmon of “The Last Barrier” from Haunters of the Silences, encounters “gigantic creatures dashing hither and thither among” the salmon, “snapping them up greedily by twos and threes” (34). Yet these dangerous “monsters” are in fact “young redfins, a couple of inches in length” (34). Likewise, in “The Prisoners of the Pitcher-plant,” we receive an ant’s Allmark-Kent 119 perspective of mammals we see as fairly small and attractive: “An overwhelming cataclysm descended suddenly upon the tiny world of the pitcher- plant. The soft, furry feet of some bounding monster —rabbit, fox, or wildcat— came down amongst the clustered pitchers, crushing several to bits” (Haunters 90-1, emphasis added). I suggest, then, that what we find here is in fact a forerunner to the species-specific language we find in the speculative zoocentric narratives. The protagonists of those texts place similar value-judgements on other species, often deeming them ‘alien,’ ‘ugly,’ or ‘monstrous.’ Without providing any solid conclusions or easy answers, Roberts helps to unpack and defamiliarize our speciesism —both the differing values and stereotypes we apply to groups of individuals. Dunayer explains that, when classified as ‘vermin,’ “unglamorous mammals” can be “legally killed in any number at any time, including when they have dependent young” (57). The word transforms “speciesist genocide into a public service” and a legitimate “punishment” for those animals. Unlike Roberts, Seton is unmistakable in his efforts to defamiliarize the category of vermin. At the beginning of “Badlands Billy,” for instance, he challenges the perception that this label is ‘natural’ by historicizing the human actions that have led to the demonization of wolves: In pristine days the Buffalo herds were followed by bands of Wolves that preyed on the sick, the weak, and the wounded. When the Buffalo were exterminated the Wolves were hard put for support, but the Cattle came and solved the question for them by taking the Buffaloes’ place. This caused the wolf-war. The ranchmen offered a bounty for each Wolf killed, and every cowboy out of work, was supplied with traps and poison for wolf-killing. The very expert made this their sole business and became known as wolvers. (Heroes 112-3) He then briefly uses the perspective of a wolver to demonstrate the disturbing consequences of this label. For instance, although wolves were already commodified for their fur, the hunting was seasonal; bounties could be collected Allmark-Kent 120 all year round: “Pelts were not good in May, but the bounties were high, five dollars a head, and double for She- wolves” (114). This system means that killing nursing females can be particularly profitable if the wolver is also able to find her cubs: As he went down to the creek one morning he saw a Wolf coming to drink on the other side. He had an easy shot, and on killing it found it was a nursing She-wolf. Evidently her family were somewhere near, so he spent two or three days searching in all the likely places, but found no clue to the den. Two weeks afterward, as the wolver rode down an adjoining cañon he saw a Wolf come out of a hole. The ever-ready rifle flew up, and another ten-dollar scalp was added to his string. Now he dug into the den and found the litter, a most surprising one indeed, for it consisted not of the usual fix or six Wolf-pups, but of eleven (114-5). T he wolver’s determination to find them and add “their scalps to his string of trophies” (115) demonstrates the realities of speciesism. As their species has been labelled vermin, these young wolf cubs are condemned to death even before they are old enough to hunt. As Dunayer observes, use of the word vermin “blames the victim.” Again, however, Seton allows his human character to catch a momentary glimpse of the history of these individuals. As he kills the cubs, the wolver notices differences between members of this unusually large litter: these, strange to say, were of two sizes, five of them larger and older than the other six. Here were two distinct families with one mother, and as he added their scalps to his string of trophies the truth dawned on the hunter. One lot was surely the family of the She-wolf he had killed two weeks before. The case was clear: the little ones awaiting the mother that was never to come, had whined piteously and more loudly as their hunger-pangs increased; the other mother passing had heard the Cubs; her heart was tender now, her own little ones had so recently come, and she cared for the orphans, carried them to her own den, and was providing for the double family when the rifleman had cut the gentle chapter short. (115) Once more, Seton does not reveal whether the man experienced any emotional reaction to this discovery; certainly, it does not seem to alter his behaviour. Of Allmark-Kent 121 course, the fact that evidence of such altruistic behaviour in the species he is being paid to exterminate does not seem to stop him, aids Seton’s defamiliarization of ‘vermin’ and ‘wolving.’ Moreover, the fact that one cub manages to survive the slaughter and is able to find a new “foster-mother” (118) suggests that the female’s altruism may not be an isolated incident, hence reinforcing the challenge to species stereotypes. The fact that the wolver seems unaffected demonstrates the strength of such prejudices. Similarly, Seton opens the story of Tito, a coyote, by illustrating the way in which speciesism subsumes all other ways of perceiving the animal: Wolver Jake, the cow-boy, had awakened from his chilly sleep about sunrise, in time to catch a glimpse of the Coyote passing over the ridge. As soon as she was out of sight he got on his feet and went to the edge, there to witness the interesting scene of the family breakfasting and frisking about within a few yards of him, utterly unconscious of any danger. Download 3.36 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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