ThemeV: The Old Engish grammar

Questions

1. 
   What is the most important grammatical changes in Early NE?
   
2. 
   Speak on the growth of the analytical form in Early NE.
   
3. 
   What are the peculiarities of syntactic system in NE?
   

Key words
Subjunctive Mood – шарт майили;
Imperative Mood – буйруқ майили;
verbals – феъл шакллари;
syntax – тилшуносликнинг гапнинг тузилишини ўрганувчи бўлими.

Lecture XIII
Theme: New English vocabulary and word formation
Plans:

1. 
   Borrowings from Contemporary languages in NE.
   
2. 
   Word formation.
   
3. 
   Semantic changes in vocabulary.
   

Literature
1. Алексеева И.В. Древнеанглийский язык. –M.: Просвещение, 1971. –270 с.
2. Линский В.Я. Сборник упражнений по истории английского языка. –Л.: ЛГУ, 1983. –
164 с.
3. Резник Р.В., Сорокина Т.А., Резник И.В. История английского языка (на английском
языке). –2-е изд. –М.: Флинта: Наука, 2003. –496 с.
4. Fisiak J. A Short Grammar of Middle English. –Warszawa: PWN, 1970. –139 с.
5. Ilyish B. History of the English language. –Л.: Просвещение, 1973. –332 с.
6. Ilyish B. The Structures of Modern English. –Л.: Просвещение, 1965. –378 с.
7. Mortan A. L. A People’s History of England. –NY: International Publishers, 1974. –590 p.
8. Rastorguyeva T.A. A History of English. –M.: Vysšaja škola, 1983. –347 pp.
9. Zaitseva S. D. Early Britain. –M.: Просвещение, 1975. –254 с.

1. The foreign influence on the English vocabulary in the age of the Renaissance and in the succeeding centuries was not restricted to Latin and Greek. The influx of French words continued and reached new peaks in the late 15^th and in the late 17^th c.

French borrowings of later stages mainly pertain to diplomatic relations, social life, art and fashions. French remained the international language of diplomacy for several hundred years; Paris led fashion in dress, food, and in social life and to a certain extent in art and literature; finally the political events in France in the 18^th -19^th c. were of world-wide significance. All these external conditions are reflected in French loans. Examples of diplomatic terms are attaché, communiqué, dossier; the words ball, café, coquette, hotel, picnic, restaurant refer to social life; ballet, ensemble, essay, genre, pertain to art; military terms are brigade, corps, manoeuvre, marine, police, reconnaissance; fashions in dress and food are illustrated by words like blouse, chemise, corsage, cravat, champagne, menu, soup. Words of miscellaneous character are: comrade, detail, entrance, essay, machine, moustache, progress, ticket. Later French borrowings differ widely from the loan-words adopted in ME. Most of them have not been completely assimilated and have retained a foreign appearance to the present day – note their spellings, the sounds and the position of the stress. Words like genre and restaurant have nasalized vowels and a French spelling: police, fatigue, marine receive the on the last syllable and are pronounced with long [i:] indicated by the letter i like French words; the diagraph ch stands for [s] in machine, in beau the letters eau have also retained the sound value of the French prototype [o:].
In addition to the three main sources – Greek, Latin and French, English speakers of the NE period borrowed freely from many other languages. It has began estimated that even in the 17^th c. the English vocabulary contained words derived from no less than fifty foreign tongues. We shall mention only the most important ones.
The main contributors to the vocabulary were Italian, Dutch, Spanish, German, Portuguese and Russian. A number of words were adopted from languages of other countries and continents, which came into contact with English: Persian, Chinese, Hungarians, Turkish, Malayan, Polynesian, the native language if India and America.
Next to French, Latin and Scandinavian, English owes the greatest number of foreign words to Italian, though many of them, like Latin loan-words, entered the English language through French. A few early borrowings pertain to commercial and military affairs while the vast majority of words are related to art, music and literature, which is a natural consequence of the fact that Italy was the birthplace of the Renaissance movement and of the revival of interest in art. The Italian borrowings balcony, cameo, corridor, cupola, design, fresco, gallery, granite, parapet, pedestal, studio reveal the priority of the Italians in certain spheres of culture. The loans replica, sonnet, stanza indicate new concepts in literature. Borrowings from Spanish came as a result of contacts with Spain in the military, commercial and political fields, due to the rivalry of England and Spain in foreign trade and colonial expansion. This is apparent from the nature of Spanish borrowings in English made in the 16^th and 17^th c.: armada, barricade, cannibal, cargo, embargo, escapade. Many loan-words indicated new objects and concepts encountered in the colonies: banana, canoe, chocolate, cocoa, colibri, maize, mosquito, Negro, potato, ranch, tobacco, tomato.
Dutch made abundant contribution to English, particularly in the 15^th and 16^th c. when commercial relations between England and the Netherlands were at their peak. Dutch artisans came to England to practice their trade and sell their goods. Dutch loan-words: pack, scour, spool, stripe; hops, tub, scum. Extensive borrowings are found in nautical terminology: bowline, buoy, cruise, deck, dock, freight, reel, skipper. The flourishing of art in the Netherlands accounts for some Dutch loan-words relating to art: easel, landscape, sketch.
Loan-words from German reflect the scientific and cultural achievements of Germany at different dates of the New period. Mineralogical terms are connected with the employment of German specialists in the English mining industry: cobalt, nickel, zinc. The advance of philosophy in the 18^th and 19^th c. accounts for philosophical terms: transcendental, dynamics. Some borrowings do not belong to a particular semantic sphere and can only be classified as miscellaneous: kindergarten, hall, stroll, plunder, poodle, waltz.
2. In Early NE new prefixes began to be employed in word derivation in English: French, Latin, and Greek. Foreign prefixes were adopted by the English language as component parts of loan-words; some time later they were singled out as separated components and used in word-building.
Probably at the time of adoption most foreign words were treated as simply or indivisible even if they were derived or compound words in the source language (e. g. commit, submit were simple words in English, although they go back to derived French and Latin words with the prefixes com- and sub-). Between the years 1200 and 1500 English borrowed many French words with the prefix re-: ME re-comforten, re-dressen, re-formen, re-entren, re-compensen; the same roots were found in simple loan-words and in derived words with other affixes: ME comforten, dressen, formen, entren; entrance, comfortable; discomforten, undressen, deformen. Re- was separated, as an element of the word, its meaning became clear to the speakers and in the 16^th c. it began to be applied as a means of word derivation:
16^th c. examples: re-greet, re-kindle, re-live;
17^th and 18^th c.: re-act, re-dajust, re-fill, re-construct, re-open;
19^th c.: re-attack, re-awake.
3. Compounds containing a verbal noun or the newly formed gerund or the stem of agent nouns were new modification of this basic pattern. They yielded words like ME working-day, dwelling-house; NE looking-glass, reading-room, smoking-room, drawing-room (from room for with drawing since the 17^th c.).
A new pattern of compound nouns arose in NE – consisting of a verb-stem and an adverb. The development of this type owes its origin to the use of stereotyped verb phrases with adverbs and prepositions which became common in ME as ‘composite verbs’: NE break down –v; break down – n, lay out – v; lay out – n. this kind of formation of nouns from verbs can be treated as an instance of conversion.
The growth of the English vocabulary in the course of history has not been confined to the appearance of new items as a result of various ways of word formation and borrowings. Internal sources of the replenishment of the vocabulary include also multiple semantic changes which created new meanings and new words through semantic shifts and through splitting of words into distinct lexical units.
Semantic changes are commonly divided into widening and narrowing of meaning and into metaphoric and metonymic shifts, though a strict subdivision is difficult, as different changes were often combined in the development of one and the same word. Sometimes semantic changes are combined with formal changes. It will suffice to give a few examples.
Questions

1. 
   Speak on the borrowings from Contemporary languages in NE.
   
2. 
   Comment on word-formation in NE.
   
3. 
   What are the semantic changes in NE vocabulary?
   

Key words
contemporary languages – мавжуд тиллар;
semantic changes – тузилишдаги узгаришлар.