1. phonetic typology is to be distinguished from phonological typology: the

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1. The Phonological typology deals with thecomparison of units of the phonological level of language. It engages in theallocation of phonological differential signs, defining their universality, study of thephonological structure of languages, classification of languages based on their phonological features (e.g. tonic and atonic languages), defining thephonemic structure of world languages and many others. For a long time,the Prague linguistic school was the center of Phonological typology. A certain contribution to thedevelopment of Phonological typology was made by N.S.Trubetskoy who is considered the founder of Typology of Phonological systems.
Phonological typology involves comparing languages according to the number or type of sound they contain. Although there are inevitable problems in dividing the sounds of any language into separate abstract units (phonemes), linguists usually compare languages according to the number of different groups which participate in meaningful sound contrasts (i.e. phonemes) rather than the total number of actual speech sounds. Every language has a fairly small inventory of these sets or phonemes. Moreover, the number varies from language to language. In comparison, Hawaiian has only 18; Kabardian has over 80, and the Roisan language is reported to have 141 phonemes or mutually contrastive sets of sounds, Abhasian has 60.
The second aspect of phonological typology classifies languages according to the type of sounds present or absent in each language. Some sounds are only rarely found in languages.
Unusual sounds include: the Czech and Slovak voiced sound [h], Arabic pharyngeal. Arabic, English, new-Greek, Bashkirian [ө] and [ә], in Danish [ð] only, Uzbek, Arabic[қ], [ғ], [ҳ].
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1.phonetic typology is to be distinguished from phonological typology: the
former is primarily concerned with the principles guiding speech production and
the latter deals with the comparative study of linguistic systems, i.e. the paradigmatic
and syntagmatic relations between sound .
Vowels are normally made with the air stream that meets no obstruction in
the mouth, pharyngeal and nasal cavities.
On the articulatory level in English the description of vowels notes changes:
1. in the stability of articulation 2. in the tongue position 3. in the lip position
4. in their length In Uzbek and Russian they are described:
1. according to the lips position 2. according to the vertical movement of the tongue
3. according to the horizontal movement of the tongue English has 1.)
10 monophthongs: /i/, /e/, /ǽ/, /u/, /٨/, /ә/, /a:/, /o/, /o:/, /ә:/.
2.) 8 diphthongs: glides to [i] -/ei/, /oi/, /ai/; glides to [u] -/au/, /әu/, /uә/; glides to [ә] - /iә/, /εә/ 3.)
2 diphthongoids /i:/, /u:/ Thus, the phonemic inventory of English vowels includes 20 phonemes and 6 vowel letters a, i, e, u, o, y,
Uzbek has 6 vowel phonemes [и], [э], [a], [у], [ў], [o] and letters i, e, a, u, o‘, o. Russian also has
6 vowel phonemes [и], [ы], [у], [э], [о], [а] and 10 vowel letters а, о, э, и, у, ы, е, ё, ю, я.
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2. Phonetics and phonology have two levels: segmental and suprasegmental.
Segmental phonology studies phonemes realized in avarious speech sound. So it may be called phonemics. Suprasegmental phonology (prosodics) studies the distinctive features realized in syllables, stress, and intonation. The fundamental concept of phonemics is the phoneme which is the smallest meaningless unit of a language and which forms, distinguishes words and morphemes. The linguistic form and content are described by other branches of linguistics.
At a given time, the set of phonemes in a language is a closed set (like function words and syntactic rules). The set of phonemes changes only over time.
English, for instance, has lost the phonemes [x] and [∑]. English has also gained phonemes by borrowing foreign words with the sounds [z] and [Z]. Neither of these sounds was phonemes in English until they entered the language in numerous words borrowed from Norman French after 1066. Similarly, the sound [t] was not part of Russian until after the Christianization in 988, when many Greek words containing [f] were borrowed by the Slavs. The
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1. Historical typology analyses historic facts and produces comparative inventory based on the history of each nation/ethnicity to reveal general trends, differences, and similarities. E.g. based on French revolution of 1848 the major signs of revolutionary situation revealed.
Areal typology is one of the independent branches of linguistic typology, which compares language systems and studies the degree of expansion and proximity of language properties which are geographically conditioned.
According to V.G. Ghak this part of ComparativeTypology "compares languages irrespectively of the degree of their relatedness and aims at defining general elements formed as a result of themutual influence of languages and the cultures staying behind them".Objects of study include borrowings, bi-lingual features, dialects, centum/satem languages, compiling dialectal maps, sub-stratum and super-stratum languages, neologisms, archaisms, hybrid languages, language contacts, etc.
Like Genetic typology, Areal typology operates with special systems or models with the help of which areal isogfosses of different languages are clarified.
The representatives of this school are Roman Jacobson and Ghak V.G.
Comparative
The circle of research in Morphological typology is very wide. It compares the units of a morphological level. Depending on the character of research the morpho-logical typology can classify into two types:
 Morphological typology engaged in the morphological classification of languages;  Morphological typology engaged in particular questions of grammar, i.e. parts of speech and their grammatical categories.
The first one is a continuation of traditional typological classification engaged in defining language types according to different principles and criteria.
Dildora Fayzullayeva, [12.05.2023 12:47]
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A part of speech is a category of words (or, more generally, of lexical items)
which have similar grammatical properties. Words that are assigned to the same