60-odd years of moscow mathematical
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Moscow olympiad problems
isosceles one. A regular polygon is a one with equal sides and equal angles but a triangle with equal sides
(and, therefore, angles) is called equilateral and never regular. In this book we often abbreviate a straight line to line; otherwise it is called a curve, unless otherwise specified. So a borderline or an airline is generally a curve while a broken line consists of segments of lines. We use the term segment speaking of a line segment; when other segments appear, e.g., a spherical segment, we say so. A graph is a collection of points (vertices) connected with curves (edges). It often happens that having constructed a graph we distill the objects under the discussion and relations between them. Several theorems of the graph theory are often encountered (Euler’s, Hall’s, Menger’s theorems), cf. solutions to Problems . A set of points in space are said to be in general position if no three of them lie on one line. A set of lines in space are said to be in general position if no three of them pass through one point and any two intersect (any three lines form a triangle). The angle between two curves is the angle between the tangents to these curves at an intersection point. (Obviously, there is a choice among two angles; a choice of orientation and order of the curves fixes one of the angles. Often, however, it does not matter which of the angles we choose, i.e., if both angles are right ones.) A midperpendicular to a segment is the line perpendicular to the segment and intersecting it at its center. The ray that bisects an angle, or part of the ray that lies inside the polygon under consideration, is called the bisector of the angle. (The term perpendicular bisector is often used instead of midperpendicular but not in this book.) We say that a circle is inscribed into or circumscribed about a triangle if it is tangent to the triangle’s three sides (from the inside of course) or passes through the triangle’s vertices, respectively. A circle is called an escribed about a triangle if it is tangent, from the outside, to one side and the extensions of the triangle’s two other sides. Two lines (or their segments) in space are said to be skew if they do not intersect but are nonparallel; the angle between skew lines is the angle between two intersecting lines parallel to the skew lines. A dihedral angle is a spatial angle between two intersecting planes π 1 and π 2 ; it is measured as the angle between two intersecting lines p 1 and p 2 perpendicular to the intersection line of the two planes and such that p 1 ⊂ π 1 , p 2 ⊂ π 2 . A trihedral angle is any one of the 8 convex parts of the space between three intersecting planes (with no points of the planes inside it). A quadrant is a quarter of the plane formed by coordinate axes. An octant is a trihedral angle with right angles at all its planar angles. Two figures that can be identified after (1) a parallel translation, or (2) a rotation, or (3) a reflection through a plane or a line and (4) a composition of movements of types (1)– (3) are called equal 2 . A great circle on a sphere is a one obtained by intersection of the sphere with a plane passing through the sphere’s center. 1 It is funny, no medium-sized dictionary contains a word with a Greek or Latin root for a 9-gon. In this book 9-gons are discriminated, too: they never appear. 2 Lately the books on elementary mathematics made the life of many a student and their instructors much more thrilling by introducing the terms equivalent for figures of equal area and congruent for figures that can be identified after an orientation- preserving transformation. The usage of the fancy term “congruent” would have been OK if it were not that much at variance with our every day usage of the language and selfcontradictory at times. 14 INTRODUCTION An angle with vertex at the center of a circle is often measured in radians or degrees, same as the arc it subtends on the circle, so the notation of the form ∠A = 1 2 ˘ Download 1.08 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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