60-odd years of moscow mathematical
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Moscow olympiad problems
m × n of a table show that it has m rows and n columns.
In all problems on graph or checkered paper or plane, we assume that all small squares or cells are uniform squares of side 1, and any vertex or node is the intersection of any two non-parallel lines of the grid, i.e., is a vertex of a square. A tableau or just table is a rectangular piece of graph paper cut along the lines of the grid. Space means R 3 , i.e., our usual (mathematically speaking, Euclidean) three-dimensional space in which for any two points the distance between them is defined. In all problems involving light rays, billiard balls, etc., we assume that the angle of reflection is equal to that of incidence. ab . . . c denotes the positive integer whose (decimal, usually) digits are a, b, . . . , c. An expression of the form aa . . . a | {z } 1993 bb . . . b | {z } 3991 means that a is repeated 1993 times and b is repeated 3991 times. Sometimes we write this explicitely if space permits. ∅ denotes the empty set, i.e., , the set without elements; we assume that ∅ is a subset of any set. M ⊂ N denotes that every element of the set M belongs to N ; we say that N is a subset of M ; s ∈ S denotes that the element s belongs to the set S; A \ B = {a ∈ A : a 6∈ B} denotes the set-theoretic difference of sets A and B. The intersection of the sets M and N is denoted by M ∩ N = {x : x ∈ M and x ∈ N }; the union of two sets M and N is denoted by M ∪ N = {x : x ∈ M or (not exclusive) x ∈ N }; a disjoint union is the union of nonintersecting sets; we often consider intersections and unions of several sets. 1 Even this is sometimes wrong, but for the sake of argument we will consider such deviations as aliens, not humans. PREREQUISITES AND NOTATIONAL CONVENTIONS 13 A partition of a set is its representation as the disjoint union of its subsets. An example: coloring each element of the set in one color. A (finite or infinite) family of sets A 1 , A 2 , . . . is a covering of a set M if every point of M belongs to some A i . One point of M can be covered several times (by different A i .) A tiling is a covering (usually with identical sets) such that each point of M is covered exactly once. Often (but not in this book) the description of a set {a i } i∈I whose elements are indexed by the elements of a set I is to the confusion of the reader abbreviated to {a i } that, strictly speaking, denotes just the one-element set consisting of a i . The number of elements in a set S is called the cardinality of S and denoted by #(S) or card S. The sets of all integer, nonnegative integer, natural, i.e., positive (in some books — not this one — non- negative) integer, rational, real and complex numbers are denoted by Z , Z + , N , Q , R and C , respectively. A 3-gon is called a triangle; a 4-gon is called a quadrilateral; a 5-gon is called a pentagon ; a 6-gon is called a hexagon; a 7-gon is called a heptagon; a 8-gon is called a octagon; 1 ; a 10-gon is called a decagon; etc. A triangle with nonequal sides is called a scalene one; a triangle with two equal sides is called an Download 1.08 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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