60-odd years of moscow mathematical
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Moscow olympiad problems
4ABC.
Criteria for two triangles to be equal. Two triangles ABC and A 0 B 0 C 0 are equal if and only if any of the following is satisfied: 1) |AB| = |A 0 B 0 |, |AC| = |A 0 C 0 | and ∠A = ∠A 0 ; 2) |AB| = |A 0 B 0 |, ∠A = ∠A, and ∠B = ∠B 0 ; 3) a = a 0 , b = b 0 , c = c 0 . The measure of a central angle in a circle is equal to the measure of the base arc this angle intercepts. The measure of the inscribed angle in a circle is equal to half the measure of the base arc this angle intercepts, see Fig. 4. Theorem on three perpendiculars. Let k and l be two straight lines such that a plane Π contains k and the projection m of l on Π is a straight line. Then (k ⊥ l) if and only if k ⊥ m. Instruments you can use to draw figures on a plane. Calipers allow one to measure the distance between any two points and find a point on a previously drawn line at a given distance from some point on that line. Unlike compasses, they do not let you draw a circle. A compass is used to draw a circle of any given radius around a fixed point on a plane and on the surface of a sphere. (The radius of the circle on the sphere is unknown.) A one-sided ruler allows one to draw straight lines; a two-sided ruler enables us to draw parallel lines with the distance between them equal to the width of the ruler. These rulers are like a regular ruler but without marks. A protractor is used to translate any given angle on a plane in such a way that one of the legs of the angle assumes any given position. 18 INTRODUCTION Miscellenea. Let i be the imaginary unit, i.e., i 2 = −1. Euler’s formula holds: e iϕ = cos ϕ + i sin ϕ. (E) This remarkable formula is the only one worth memorizing in the whole of trigonometry: since for any complex numbers z and w we have e z e w = e z+w , the reader will quickly learn to use (E) to derive in no time the facts like sin(a + b) = sin a cos b + sin b cos a. The inner (or scalar) product of two nonzero vectors a and b, denoted by a · b or by (a, b), is defined as |a||b| cos ϕ, where ϕ is the angle between a and b. If (a 1 , a 2 , a 3 ) and (b 1 , b 2 , b 3 ) are Cartesian coordinates of a and b, then (a, b) = a 1 b 1 + a 2 b 2 + a 3 b 3 . If either a or b is 0, we set (a, b) = 0. Solutions of a couple of problems require some topology. In the majority of problems, where some notions from topology seem to be needed, the answer can, actually, be guessed regardless, with the help of common sence, often called by mathematicians physical considerations. For example, when talking about a line segment, it is often inessential for the answer to be derived whether the segment’s endpoints belong to it or not; we consider it not as a set, but as a structureless solid. Still, in several problems it helps to know that any open interval (a, b), the union of any number of intervals and the intersection of any finite number of intervals is called an open set on the line. If a point P belongs to an open interval, this interval is called its open neighborhood. A point P ∈ M is called an inner one for the set M if there is an open neighborhood of P that belongs to M . For example, every point of interval (a, b) is inner (prove it!). A point P ∈ M is called an outer one for the set M if there is an open neighborhood of P that does not belong to M . A point that is neither inner nor outer is called a boundary one. On the plane, the open discs {x, y | (x − a) 2 + (y − b) 2 Download 1.08 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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