A preliminary Discussion on the Study of Dzungar Oirat Mongols’ History (17 th 19 th Century) and Its Characteristics
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1 Mongolian and Tibetan Quarterly, Vol.21, No.3 A Preliminary Discussion on the Study of Dzungar Oirat Mongols’ History (17 th -19 th Century) and Its Characteristics
│ Professor, College of Mongolian Language and Culture, Northwest University for Nationalities, Mainland China Abstract This paper takes the view that the mythology, legends, epics, and historical texts of the Oirat Mongols are the basis upon which the history of Oirat Mongol historical studies is constructed. Discovery and compilation of historical texts written in Oirat clear script has made possible the task of constructing the history of Oirat Mongol historical studies. This paper takes the view that for the purpose of academic research, the history of Oirat Mongol historical studies may be divided into two stages: before and after the creation of the Oirat clear script (namely the year 1648). This paper provides a discussion on the historical knowledge of the Oirat Mongols in Dzungar area in seventeenth to nineteenth century largely based on historical archives written in Oirat clear script, in order to examine ethnic characteristics demonstrated in the history of Oirat Mongol historical studies and the relationships between the Oirat Mongols, their native Mongol culture, and other cultures. The year 1757, which marked the fall of the Dzungar Khanate, may be seen as a dividing point in the Dzungar Oirat Mongol historical studies: the Dzungar Khanate used to have historians responsible for compilation if historical texts, but most of the historical texts were lost. After the fall of the Dzungar Khanate, several influential pieces of historical texts written in Oirat clear script, which reflect the views of the Oirat Mongols regarding the fall of the Dzungar Khanate, were discovered. Most of the historical texts focus on a confederation of the Oirat tribes known as the “Four Oirats,” a period characterized by the fact that “the Oirat Mongols’ historical knowledge and the historical texts written in Oirat clear script had certain influence on compilation of official historical texts in the Chinese Qing Dynasty.” In 1771, the Torghut, along with several other subgroups of the Four Oirats, migrated east back to their home in Dzungar. In the nineteenth century, a hundred years after their return, elements of the Torghut tribe had been incorporated into the Qing Dynasty realm for more than a hundred years. As a subject of Qing Dynasty China, the Oirat Mongols switched from “giving” historical knowledge to the Qing Dynasty officials to “receiving” the Qing Dynasty court’s version of historical events.
The Oyirod people are a unique ethnic group in Mongolia. The history of the historiography of the Oyirod reflects the characteristics of the Oyirod people. A Preliminary Discussion on the Study of Dzungar Oirat Mongols’ History (17th-19th Century) and Its Characteristics 2 The historiography of Oyirod Mongols cannot exist without the myths, legends, epics, and historical texts of the Oyirod Mongols. It is especially important to uncover the historical knowledge and historiographical views of the Oirat Mongols from the writings of Oirat Mongol historians, in order to construct the history of historiography of the Oirat Mongols. The first condition that must be satisfied before the construction of the history of Oirat Mongol historiography is possible is discovery and compilation of historical texts written in Oirat clear script. I believe that the year 1648, or the year when the Oirat clear script was created, can be seen as a divide line. The relatively underexplored history of the Oirat Mongol historiography may be examined by dividing it into two phases: before and after the creation of Oirat clear script. By examining historical texts written in Oirat clear script, one can understand the historical knowledge, politics, and philosophical thinking of 17 th to 19 th century Oirat Mongols, and also explore the methodology of Oirat historians in writing historical texts, the ethnic characteristics as appeared in the historiography of Oirat Mongols, and the relationship betwwen Oirat Mongol culture and the Mongolian culture and other cultures. The history of the historiography of Oirat may be divided into the following stages:
1. The historiography of Oirat Mongols before the creation of Oirat clear script (1)
Myths and Legends: which were spread through the word of mouth (2)
(3)
Historical knowledge of the Oirats after they became Mongolian subjects (4)
The transformation of the tradition of Oirat Mongol historiography from epics to writings: The Story of Wubashi Hongtaiji
2. The historiography of Oirat Mongols after the creation of Oirat clear script (1)
th century to early 18 th century (2)
The development of Oirat historiography in Volga River region (3)
The development of historiography in Dzungar region (4)
The Qinghai Oirat Mongol historiography From the 17 th century to the first half of the 18 th century, the four major tribes of Oirat people went separate ways. The Torghut Oirats moved to the Volga River region and created a new world for themselves. The Khoshut Oirats moved to the land of Buddhism on the Tibetan Plateau near the Qinghai Lake. The Dzungar Oirats stayed in the Dzungar region in the south and north 3 Mongolian and Tibetan Quarterly, Vol.21, No.3 sides of Tian Shan. The Dörbet Oirats were scattered in a number of places. There were still interactions between these major tribes of Oirat people, as manifested in the following ways: Firstly, the ruling houses of these tribes continued to forge marital alliances. Secondly, these tribes turned to each other for shelter in times of crisis. For example, the people of Sanjijab entered Dzungar where they eventually became the subjects of Tsewang Rabtan. Another example would be the people of Sechen Khan, who relocated to the Volga River region following defeat by Galdan Boshugtu Khan, to cite only a few examples. Thirdly, the Oirat people never stopped the practice of offering tea to Buddha because of their firm belief in Tibetan Buddhism. There were constant exchanges between the Oirat tribes over Tibetan Buddhism. The four Oirat tribes remained in constant contacts and exchanges, despite being scattered in three centers. During this period, the historiographical activities of the four Oirat tribes reflected their similarities and differences. The differences became increasingly obvious as time went by, but the similarities still dominated the history from mid-17 th century to mid-19 th century. The focus of this paper is on the development of Oirat Mongol historiography in Dzungar region in the period from the 17 th to the 19 th century.
Ⅰ. Historiography at the golden age of Dzungar Khanate It is generally believed that Dzungar Khanate reached the prime under the leadership of Galdan Boshugtu Khan (1644-1697), Tsewang Rabtan (1665-1727), and Galdan Tseren (1695-1745). The three rulers worked passionately on the political and military front, and also strove zealously for economic and cultural developments. Settlements started to appear around religious centers, such as the temples in Guerzha and Hainuke in Ili, and the establishment of Jiujisai. These are manifestations of the fact that religion achieved unprecedented height in Dzungar Khanate. It is mentioned in historical texts written in Oirat clear script as well as Tibetan language historical texts written by Oirat historians that: “The four temples built during the reign of Galdan Boshugtu Khan accommodated over twenty thousand Buddhist monks and nuns, who rigorously practiced followed the commandments, Esoteric and Exoteric Buddhism texts, and the works of Je Tsongkhapa, his disciples, and Yonten Gyatso. They studied Tripi ṭaka and practiced the Threefold Training. The fragrance emerging from such devout practice traveled far and wide, and other Buddhist practitioners paled in comparison. The flourishing of Buddhism in the A Preliminary Discussion on the Study of Dzungar Oirat Mongols’ History (17th-19th Century) and Its Characteristics 4 region is similar to the time when Je Tsongkhapa and his disciples were alive. The reign of this king and his descendants (Galdan Tseren and Dorj) was so delighting that it made the people’s hairs shake with joy. 1 ” It is revealed in the writings of some scholars that the Dzungar Khanate did not stop historiographical compilations during this period. For example, Pallas writes: “One thing I regret is that we missed the opportunity to look for the historical texts, or Chondsčhin Taka of the Torghut people before they moved away from the Volga River, 2 especially the chronicle of the Dzungar Khanate. The Dzungar elderlies who still inhabited in the Volga River region revealed that the chronicle was compiled with draconian effort under the leadership of Erdeni Batur. Until the fall of Dzungar Khanate, every ruler had arranged for manpower to write the book. 3 ”
Dzungar people he met are probably those who fled to the Volga River region following the fall of Dzungar Khanate, so the information should be reliable. During this period, the flourishing religious culture of the Oirat Mongols bred a group of learned lamas. Besides, the Dzungar Khanate was at her prime, and the rulers were concerned about making records about their past. The History of
passages about the histories of the Dzungars and Dörbets that: “The written histories of the Dzungars contain the personal histories of the 21 rulers of the Dzungars and Dörbets. 4 ”
In The History of Four Oirat Tribes written by an unknown author, the book about the history of Oirat people in Dzungar region called Ihetulikeer was cited as a source text: “…Please refer to Ihetulikeer for how the Dzungar Oirats and the Dörbet Oirats managed to multiply in numbers in Altay, Zhuledusi, and Tekes after the reincarnation of the 81 magicians. 5 ”
th year of the reign of Emperor Qianlong, Mingrui, the General of Illi, told the emperor of a rumor about historical texts of the Oirats being hidden in Zhagesitai. Su Cheng and Haichuna were dispatched to
This paper was translated on December 2, 2011. It was approved for publication on March 2, 2012. 1 Sumpa Yeshe Peljorm translated by Pu Wencheng and Tsering, The Desirable Tree of Gem: A History of India, China, Mongolia and Tibet (Lanzhou: Gansu People’s Press, 1994), pp.799-800. 2 Which means “ancient history.” 3 Pallas, translated by Shao Jiandong and Liu Yingsheng, Oirat History in Inland Asia (Kunming, Yunnan People’s Press, 2002), p.15. 4 Yabang Seirab, History of Four Oirat Tribes, manuscript written in Oirat clear script, p.2b. 5 Unknown author, The History of Four Oirat Tribes, manuscript written in Oirat clear script, p.8a. 5 Mongolian and Tibetan Quarterly, Vol.21, No.3 investigate the matter, but nothing was ever found. Mingrui pledged to monitor Illi region carefully to search for historical and Buddhist texts left by the Oirats.
6
On February 13 of the 28 th year of the reign of Qianlong Emperor, Baerpin, the General of Chahar, told Qianlong Emperor that he had acted on the emperor’s order and inquired Gendaxi and Danbi, two Oirats who had stationed at Chahar and Hulunbuir: “Are you capable of writing in Oirat clear script? You used to serve in the Oirat army, so you should know something about the origin of the Oirats. If you are capable of writing in Oirat clear script, then you had better write about the history of the Oirats in Oirat clear script and hand it to me. If you still have in your possession historical archives about the origin of the Oirat people, then you should hand them over to me.” Gendaxi replied, “We did have a book about our history, but it was lost in Illi. Neither of us is able to write in Oirat clear script, but Maotuo knows a little Oirat clear script.” And so Maotuo wrote about the origin of the Oirats and presented it to Baerpin. 7
the fall of the Dzungar Khanate, but most of them were lost during the war. Luckily, we have discovered a history book written in 1667, twenty years after the invention of Oirat clear script in 1648. The book is called The History from
and main text do not supply any information about the author. The book was written in 1667 by an unknown author. There is no mention of “four Oirat tribes” in the book, which means that at the time of the book’s release, the Oirat regime had yet to reach her prime, and the “four Oirat tribes” had yet to feature in the historiography of the Oirats. However, there is another book which has exactly the same content except for the postscript. This second book is called
title has the words “The History of Dzungar” added to it, although the word “Dzungar” does not appear in the main text of the book. The change in the book title suggests that the person who wrote or transcribed the book regarded the beginning of mankind and universe and political and religious transformations as part of the history of Dzungar. The History from Ancient Antiquity to the Era of Güshi Khan is so far known to be the earliest historical text to be written in Oirat clear script. The discovery of this book is a pleasant addition to the literature of Oirat Mongols. It is valuable as a historiographical
6 Enclosure to the memorial to the emperor in Manchu language, 1978-018, 065-0152. 7 Manchu Monthly File Packages of Military Confidential Administration in Qing Dynasty, 2007-009, 066-0999.
A Preliminary Discussion on the Study of Dzungar Oirat Mongols’ History (17th-19th Century) and Its Characteristics 6 source, the only text written by 17 th century Oirat Mongols that tells the development history of the universe, mankind, politics, and religion. 8
Ⅱ. Historiography after the fall of Dzungar Khanate: the history of the four Oirat tribes told by unknown authors 9
This phase is characterized by standoff, confrontations, and battles between Oirat Mongols and Qing China, which ended in the former’s defeat. In this period of history, the historical texts written by Dzungar Oirat historians had one thing in common: most of them were written by “unknown authors.” After spending huge manpower, money, and efforts over nearly half a century, Qing China finally completed military conquest of Dzungar in the 22 nd
emperor ordered a series of cultural projects to mark this great and significant victory. These cultural projects include compilation of a series of historical texts, such as Dictionary of Languages in the Western Regions, The Western
Overview of the Barbarian Tribes under Our August Dynasty, A Concise History of the Conquest of Dzungar written by Qianlong Emperor personally and incorporated into The Western Regions Annals, and construction of temples in Rehe. After the humiliating defeat, the Dzungar people were completely “conquered,” never managed to rebuild their independent khanate. As elites, the Oirat historians naturally reflected on the defeat. The following three literary works that I am about to introduce were written at such a sensitive time. Unlike previous works by Oirat authors, these three works were written by authors who opted for anonymity. This is interesting, because in the earlier history works of the Oirat Mongols, the authors mostly indicated their name clearly in the text, e.g., Radna badra’s Biography of Zaya Pandita, Yabang Seirab’s The History of Four Oirat Tribes, and Baertuwubashi Tumen’s The History of Four Oirat Tribes. Most of the Oirat authors of historical texts written after the fall of Dzungar Khanate opted for anonymity. As such, we need to think about questions such as “Who were narrating the history? Why were they narrating? To whom were they narrating? And why did they opt for anonymity?” My essays such as “The Reflections of the Oirats regarding the Fall of Dzungar Khanate,” “On the Legends of Amursana,” “The
8 M. Ulan, “A Preliminary Discussion of The History from Ancient Antiquity to the Era of Güshi Khan in Oirat Clear Script,” Ethno-National Studies (Beijing), 2008, No.5, pp.89-95. 9 M. Ulan, “Historical Texts Written by Unknown Authors after the Fall of Dzungar Khanate and the Historical Memories of the Oirats,” Ethno-National Studies (Beijing), 2007, No.3, pp.81-86. 7 Mongolian and Tibetan Quarterly, Vol.21, No.3 Mongolization of Oirat Mongols and Stability of the Historical Framework of ‘Four Oirats’,” and “The Transformation of Use of Calendar and Political Identity” discuss the characteristics of Oirat historiography following the fall of Dzungar Khanate. 10
Take The History of Four Oirat Tribes written by unknown author in the second half of 18 th century for example. Much of the book is about Amursana, a contradictory figure in the history of Oirats. Defeated by Dawachi in a power struggle, Amursana bent his knees to Qing China, and then turned against the Qing Chinese when the latter failed to make him the ruler of the four Oirats. Yet the Oirat people harbored much love for such a rebellious figure. Stories and folk songs dedicated to him are still popular in Xinjiang. The History of
Amursana. Firstly, his birth is depicted as somewhat magical. He was depicted as “holding a black stone in one hand and clotted blood in another” when he was born. The Secret History of the Mongols states that it was Genghis Khan who held clotted blood in his hand when he was born. It was the first time in the history of the Oirats that a historical figure was depicted as holding clotted blood in his hand when he was born. Collective memories are based on a reconstruction of the past. History writers back then had reconstructed Amursana and put the collective memories into writing. Legends such as this reflected the Oirats’ yearning for a hero after the fall of Dzungar Khanate. Amursana was the chosen hero because he was active sometime close to the era, and many people still had fresh memories about his struggle with Qing China. By singing praises of him, the Oirat people were in fact expressing a certain kind of spirit. Secondly, the author used the Tibetan calendar. In The History of the Four Oirat Tribes written by an unknown author, the history of Dzungar before its submission to Qing China is told in the Tibetan rapjung calendar, yet the Qing Chinese calendar is used when telling the relationship between Dzungar and Qing China. Finally, the author (whose identity is not known) of The History of Four
Dzungar Oirat tribes. The academic world has paid much attention to the social system of the Dzungar Khanate, including the 24 otogs, 21 angjis, and 9 jisais.
11 Qing China’s war of conquest resulted in the collapse of administrative,
10 M. Ulan, “Historical Texts Written by Unknown Authors after the Fall of Dzungar Khanate and the Historical Memories of the Oirats,” Ethno-National Studies (Beijing), 2007, No.3, pp.81-86. 11 Feng Xishi, “A Discussion of the Otogs, Angjis, and Jisais of Dzungar,” Collection of Papers on Oirat History (Hohhot: Journal of Inner Mongolia Normal University, Philosophy and Social Sciences), 1990, No.3), pp.147-158. A Preliminary Discussion on the Study of Dzungar Oirat Mongols’ History (17th-19th Century) and Its Characteristics 8 economic, and military systems of Dzungar. Although this part of history is mentioned in many historical texts in Qing era, it is the first time that this part of history is ever mentioned in historical texts in Oirat clear script, so it is especially valuable. The Dzungar people suffered greatly as a result of internal conflict and Qing China’s “war of conquest.” Nearly the entire race was wiped out. And Dzungar social systems such as 24 otogs, 21 angjis, and 9 jisais came to an end. As a witness of the era, the author wrote down recollections of the social organization of the Oirat as a way of chastising the incompetent the khan of Dzungar and the cruelty of Qing China’s war of conquest. Other historical works written in Oirat clear script after the fall of Dzungar Khanate, such as The Origin of Genghis Khan, the Origin of the Four Oirats,
12 by an unknown author, and The History of Khoshut 13 written by an unknown author, have certain similarities with aforementioned The History of Four Oirat Tribe.
Ⅲ. The decline of Dzungar Oirat Mongol historiography A new style of historiography appeared among the Dzungar Oirats in the 19 th
century. In the wake of the fall of the Oirats, the Oirat culture as a vast database of historical memories also faded away. The Oirat people, who were said to have numbered only several thousand, could not bring back their former glory. They turned to religion for spiritual comfort, seeking from religion the real reason behind the fall of the four Oirats. It is no coincidence that nearly 50 years after the release of The History of the Four Oirat Tribes by an unknown author in 1870s and 1880s, another history book called History of the Origin of
school of Buddhism was released. The book was released in 1825. Judging from the fact that the book is mostly about the history of Dzungar Khanate, it may be assumed that the author is a Dzungar (Oirat) person who was active sometime from late 18 th century to the first half of 19 th century under the reign of Qianlong Emperor, Jiaqing Emperor, and Daoguang Emperor. By the time the book was written, the Dzungar Oirats had been Qing Chinese subjects for almost fifty years. The once glorious Dzungar Khanate was no more. After quelling the “rebellion” of Dzungars, Qing China established in Illi “Manchu Camp,” “Solon Camp,” “Sibe Camp,” “Oirat Camp,” and “Chahar Camp” The Manchu troops were stationed in
12 Unknown author, “History of Genghis Khan, the Imperial Successor,” Khan Tengri (in Oirat clear script, Ürümqi), 1983, No.2, pp.9-21. 13 Unknown author, proofread and annotated by Norbu, “History of Kho Orluk,” Khan Tengri (in Oirat clear script, Ürümqi), 1983, No.3, pp.20-64. 9 Mongolian and Tibetan Quarterly, Vol.21, No.3 Huiyuan and Huining. The four camps of Sibe, Solon, Oirat, and Chahar “were stationed in four places” to provide cover for Illi. According to Tuna, “following the fall of Dzungar Khanate, the Dzungar herdsmen who survived the catastrophe became subjects of the imperial Qing China. The establishment of the Oirat camp effectively eradicated the Dzungar tribe, as “Dzungar” was replaced by “Oirat. 14 ” The unknown author of The History of Four Oirat Tribes knows very much about religion-related incidents in the history of the Oirats, and the theme of the book is the spread of the Gelugpa school of Buddhist among Oirat Mongols. In writing the book, the author uses a plain, straightforward narrative, without any ornate terms for expression. The book centers on the Gelupa school of Buddhism, interpreting historical events from the perspective of Shamanist concept of ethnics. It is likely that the author of the book is a monk who is well aware of the history of the Gelugpa school in Dzungar region. The author of the book believes that Galdan Boshugtu Khan’s failed eastern military expedition was the result of a conspiracy concocted by a group of Khoshut lamas. According to the author, the Khoshut lamas were trying to get even with Galdan Boshugtu Khan who had fought the Khoshuts for the throne. As for the destruction of the famous Gold-Roofed Temple and Silver-Roofed Temple of Dzungar Khanate, the author points out in the book that they were burned down by “external forces,” i.e., the Kazakhstans. Yet the author still attributed the destruction to poor geomancy. In short, the author wrote this history book in Oirat clear script in Qing era out of a passion for his people’s history and a devout belief in religion. The book narrates the history of the Oirats by examining the spread of the Gelugpa sect of Buddhism and the establishment of the three jewels of Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha. The spread of Buddhism is a subject that features prominently in the works of Oirat historians. However, compared to Yabang Seirab’s The History of Four Oirat Tribes, unknown author’s The History of the Khans of Kalmyk, the unknown author’s The History of Four Oirat Tribes, the author of The History of the Origin of the Mongols does not describe the subjects of kingship so passionately. To the author of the book and to the Oirat people of the era, the glory days of the Oirat people are gone. It was a time when the historiography of the Dzungar Oirats was on the decline, a decline that was not stopped by the return of the Torghut people to Dzungar. In 1771, Ubashi Khan led his troops and returned from the Volga River to
14 Tuna, “Oirat Army Stationed in Illi,” The Western Regions Studies (Ürümqi), 2002, No.2, pp.29-36. A Preliminary Discussion on the Study of Dzungar Oirat Mongols’ History (17th-19th Century) and Its Characteristics 10 Altay Prefecture, and Qing China helped them settle down. The descendants of Ubashi Khan’s troops and Kho Orluk became known as the Old Torghuts, or ünen süjüqtu league, and were divided into eastern, western, southern, and northern divisions. The southern division consisted of the descendants of Shakeduerzhabu, son of Ayuka Khan. The northern division consisted of the descendants of Gunzhabu, son of Ayuka Khan. The eastern division consisted of the descendants of Namucelin, son of Daichin Khan. The western division consisted of the descendants of Lobsang, son of Kho Orluk and younger brother of Daichin Khan. There was also a group of people led by Weikunchabuchaqi, son of Beiguoeerleke and the uncle of Kho Orluk, who had been leading a nomadic lifestyle with the Dzungars in the Illi region. His sixth grandson, Sheleng, fled to the Volga River after killing Tang Kalu, Deputy Lieutenant General of a Qing Chinese army which invaded Illi in the reign of Qianlong Emperor. Sheleng returned along with Ubashi Khan in 1771. Qing China dubbed Sheleng and his people the new Torghuts, or Qingcetequletu League. Such is the historical background of the lineages of khanate of Torghut that we are about to discuss below. The Lineage of the Khanate of Old Torghut Unen Süjüqtu and New Torghut Qingcetequletu 15 was written by T oyin dageslong daglegs mčog ldan, aka ē ie. Born into the ruling family of the Torghuts, he is an aristocratic lama who finished the work in 19 th to 20 th century of the Qing era. The Danish H. Haslund remarks in his Man and God of Mongolia 16 that judging from the use of calendar, it is obvious that the events were recorded by different people at different time. The handwriting on the introduction of the book has faded away and therefore is difficult to read. Yet it can still be concluded from the tone of narrative that the author was a lama. In other words, the history book that Haslund had read is probably the “book of lineage” we were talking about. Haslund tells us that this “book of lineage” was written by different authors at different time, and I agree with this argument. However, I believe that ē ie was the one who started writing this “book of lineage.” Three sections of the literary work which I am about to introduce may have been written by him, with other authors supplying additional information on the historical figure of their era. The academic world has the tendency to classify this piece of literary work as a “lineage report,” which leads to an under-appreciation of the text’s historiographical value. The text is titled “ ünen sü üqtu xoučin Toroγoud gigēd
15 Manuscript in Oirat clear script. Currently in the collection of a museum of Hejing County of Bayingolin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture in Xinjiang. 16 H. Haslund, Man and God of Mongolia, Xinjiang People’s Press, Ürümqi, 1999, p.275. 11 Mongolian and Tibetan Quarterly, Vol.21, No.3 čing sedkelgetü šine Toroγoud nuγoudiyin xān noyodiyin uq ündüsüni iledkel töükiyin bičig bui.” “Uq ündüsüni iledkel töükiyin bičig” may be translated as “the history of the origin of the khans.” The choice of words in the title shows that the author does not see the work as simply a “lineage report.” As suggested in the analysis below, he was writing about the lineage from the historiographical perspective. This piece of literary work consists of three sections: Firstly, the origin of the Torghut people and how they became one of the four Oirat tribes. Secondly, the lineage of the Torghut khans. Thirdly, the postscript. In other words, it tells the history from the beginning of the Torghut people all the way to the lineage of khans. Finally, the author explains in the postscript his reasons for composing the records of lineage. Toyin and Yabang Seirab basically supplied the same information in their works. For example, the fact that “Torghut” means “strong and powerful,” the relationship between Tooril Khan and Genghis Khan, and the time when the Torghuts joined in the Oirats. However, Toyin provided a more detailed and lively account, perhaps because he consulted historical texts and folk legends in writing his work. In addition, he was probably the influence of the theory of “unification of India, Tibet, and Mongolia” as appeared in Tibetan and eastern Mongolian historical texts when he made the statement that the ancestors of the Torghuts actually came from India. The work centers on “the record of lineage.” However, the author does not just list the names when compiling the record of lineage. The author remarks in the epilogue: Existing literary works about the lineage of khans would only record the names of the seal-holding Jasagh leaders. Other members of their clans and taijis were left out. And some of them were written a long time ago without being updated. Therefore, I consulted iledekel šašter and šara debter as well as several history books I wrote during my time at the Volga River region and put in as much details as I could in compiling this record of lineage. Toyin makes it clear in the book that he is a descendant of a khan. He was writing a record of the lineage of the ruling house, which belonged to the top class of Torghut society. In other words, it is the lineage that stretches from Tooril Khan, Kho Orluk all the way to Ubashi Khan, as well as the branches that stretches from this line. Toyin was active at a time when the “Oirats” were being gradually replaced
A Preliminary Discussion on the Study of Dzungar Oirat Mongols’ History (17th-19th Century) and Its Characteristics 12 by the “Torghuts.” Such was the reality of the time. The Dzungar regime had already fallen apart. The Oirat people, who consisted of mostly the Torghuts who returned to the east, had already become vassals of Qing China. These are the reasons behind the shift of focus from the “four Oirat tribes” to “Torghuts.” Previous Oirat Mongol historical texts, such as Yabang Seirab’s The History
outstanding consorts of khans and criticizing those who were considered to have violated the code of morality. Another literary work about the lineage of the Torghut people, The Origin of the Torghuts, is a breakthrough from tradition in that the names of Torghut ladies are also included. It was the first time that ladies were included in a record of lineage, which suggests a change of awareness on the part of historians. There are also two other lineage works: The Lineage of the Khans of Southern Unen Süjüqtu League Old Torghuts 17 and The Lineage of Jasagh Taijis of Northern Unen Süjüqtu League Old Torghuts. The latter is concluded with the following passage: Bow to pray for the longevity of the golden-colored Saint Bogda! We are Cerenlabudeng, the humble servants. From now on, we shall together cherish the blessings of Saint Bogda, and bow to you with the utmost sincerity! Apparently by the time this passage was written, the Torghuts had already become the vassals of Qing China. Toyin was active at a time when the consensus among the Torghut people was “friends and relatives, brothers and khans should always unite as one to defend for our religion and regime, and to pray for good fortune.” It was a time when the Torghuts were worshipping the imperial power of Qing China. The Torghut people wrote about their lineage in Tibetan language as well as in Oirat clear script. The Lineage of Khans 18
an unknown author. According to the lineage information mentioned above, the Torghut moved east and returned to their homeland in 1771. They lived on a land that used to
17 Badai and Jinfeng, compiled and annotated by Erdeni, The History of Oirats (Uyghur Mongolian language, Ürümqi, Xinjiang People’s Press, 1992), pp.333-352. 18 This record of lineage of Torghut khans was written in Tibetan language and kept at the residence of Gendungelong at Naimengmudun (which literally means “eight trees”) in Hejing County of Bayingolin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture. In 1980, a person named Ayushi of the same county came into possession of the document. Genjielixide, Deputy Chairman of Mongol Autonomous Prefecture Committee of CPPCC, translated the text into Oirat clear script. The translation was published in the magazine Bayingolin (an Oirat clear script publication, No.2, 1982). The translation was subsequently incorporated into Badai and Jinfeng, compiled and annotated by Erdeni, The History of Oirats (Ürümqi, Xinjiang People’s Press, 1992), pp.375-399.
13 Mongolian and Tibetan Quarterly, Vol.21, No.3 be the territory of Dzungar Khanate. However, the holy land of Altay failed to inspire the Torghut who were skilled history writers, who opted to write down the lineage of the Torghuts to prove their noble standing as the descendants of old rulers. In 18
th and 19
th centuries, the Oirat Mongol historiography in Dzungar region developed many new features. I have written a commentary on the post-Dzungar Khanate Oirat Mongol historiography. It is my belief that the works of Oirat historians reflected the Oirat people’s feelings about the fall of khanate. The “four Oirat tribes” are still the focus of the historical texts. 19 It
was a time when “compilation of Qing China’s official history was under the influence from the historical knowledge of Oirat Mongols and historical texts written in Oirat clear script. 20 ” By the 19 th century, the Torghut people had been the subjects of Qing China for a hundred years, having returned to their homeland a hundred years ago. As the subjects of Qing China, the Torghut people started “exporting” their history to Qing China by compiling written records of their “lineage.” They also started to “accept” Qing China’s official version of historical events. Several conclusions may be drawn out of this. Firstly, judging from the titles of the historical works mentioned above, it is clear that the authors used the names Qing China had given to them after the Torghuts returned to their homeland. Secondly, although the names of some of the non-hereditary aristocrats and royal consorts are mentioned in the lineage records, the focus is still on the nobles who had been created by Qing China. The lineage records are really telling the history of Qing China conferring titles on Torghut nobles. This is a common trait of lineage records at this point of history. Finally, these lineage records follow the same kind of format used in Qing Chinese biographies. These traits demonstrate that after becoming the subjects of Qing China, the Torghut Mongols began to accept Qing China’s official version of history. Following the fall of the Dzungar Khanate, Qing China arranged for the last few survivors of the fallen khanate to join the Oirat Camp. The Torghut people and others who returned to the east were divided into different camps. In other words, the Dzungar Oirat people at this point of history were scattered in different administrative jurisdictions, and therefore were isolated from each other. Therefore, there is not a single history book which depicts the similarities between the Oirat people who returned to the east in 1771 and the last few
19 M. Ulan, “Historical Texts Written by Unknown Authors after the Fall of Dzungar Khanate and the Historical Memories of the Oirats,” Ethno-National Studies (Beijing), 2007, No.3, pp.81-86. 20 M. Ulan, “The Influence of Oirat Clear Script Historical Texts on Qing China’s Compilation of Official Historical Texts,” Qing History Studies (Beijing), 2004, No.3. A Preliminary Discussion on the Study of Dzungar Oirat Mongols’ History (17th-19th Century) and Its Characteristics 14 survivors of defunct Dzungar Khanate. The writing of history of Dzungar Khanate went into decline, and historiographical progress of the Volga River Oirats gradually came to a stop after the Torghut and other peoples returned to the east.
Ⅳ. Conclusions Compilation of a nation’s history has a lot to do with the nation’s political, cultural, and economic situations. The Oirat Mongol historians, besides following closely the fate of their nation, also appealed for the compassion and mercifulness of people in the postscript of their works. Now I would like to cite the postscript of The History from Ancient Antiquity to the Era of Güshi Khan to conclude this paper! “I pray for good fortune! Pray listen to my words closely: The vast universe has lasted from the Lord of Universe Esürün Tenggeri to the six realms of today. Have you heard of this? The reincarnation of the omniscient Buddha, and the golden-colored dvīpas, are still in danger of being damaged despite their solidness. Surely you must have heard of this! Have you seen the great world’s resistance against the arrival of Death? Young bodies are like clouds of autumn; the world’s happiness is like bubbles on the surface of water. Life is like a cloud in the wind. The next world is a land of purity and discipline. One must cast aside past misdeeds and always show reverence to Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha. From now on, one must resist the Ten Abominations and always stick to the law of Buddhism in order to receive the blessings of the Buddha in the afterlife. 21 ” 21
in Oirat clear script, 1667), pp.16a-16b. This passage is translated by the author of this paper. Download 125.35 Kb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: 
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