A01 cohe4573 01 se fm. Qxd

2 4 8
F U R T H E R I S S U E S I N L E A R N I N G , T E A C H I N G , A N D A S S E S S M E N T
contextual features play in determining the form that the message actually
takes (see Chapter 6).
7
For example, key features to learn in order to make a
request in discourse include:
■
the grammatical structures and word choice used to formulate the request;
■
the pauses and hedging devices for mitigating the force of the request;
■
the pre- and post-request strategies (such as giving a reason for the request
and thanking); and
■
adjusting for the relative social status of the speaker/writer and the
listener/reader, the level of distance/closeness, and the severity of
imposition of the request.
The first three constitute language, or the form of the request, and the last
represents crucial contextual factors involved in the situation. In the learning
of pragmatics, students are expected to notice how the context influences
the choice of language forms (form–context relationship), as well as how the
choice of language shapes the context at the same time. In fact, technology
can be used to trigger learners’ noticing by clearly differentiating important
information from optional or extra resources. Various forms of input
enhancement can be devised with relative ease, for example, through the
use of bold text, italics, underlining, or the highlighting of key language fea-
tures or contextual factors.
8
These crucial features can also be presented, for
instance, in noticeable colors, with pictures (as in picture-enhanced DCT
9
),
or in perceptible designs (such as captions on the screen
10
) to attract learners’
attention. Although much research seems to indicate that the explicit teach-
ing of pragmatics is more effective than an implicit approach, implicit tech-
niques of input enhancement may also be successful.
11
Online tools for creating language exercises
The use of instructional technology often gives a greater degree of indepen-
dence to learners than conventional modes of instruction. The use of avail-
able technologies allows learners to progress at their own pace and may give
more choices, for example, as to what materials they can study, the sequence
that they study them in, how they practice language, and the sections that
they decide to review. When they have independent learning options, learners
7
Schmidt (2001).
8
Derewianka (2003).
9
As in Yamashita (2002).
10
As used in Fukuya and Clark’s (2001) intervention on request mitigators.
11
Fukuya and Clark (2001); Martínez-Flor and Fukuya (2005); Rose (2005).

---

I N C O R P O R A T I N G T E C H N O L O G Y I N T O I N S T R U C T I O N
2 4 9
may be more likely to link to what attracts their attention and interest,
rather than proceeding linearly through material in the order that it is pre-
sented. Currently available web-based instructional tools enable teachers to
quite easily provide self-study exercises, learner-directed feedback, optional
tasks, and linguistic and cultural scaffolding built into the material. Learners
are free to use or ignore such scaffolding and extra information available.
Let us start by taking some rather simple but teacher-friendly web-based
exercises as examples. What can awareness-raising exercises for pragmatics
look like? Here are some types of exercises that can be prepared through the
use of instructional software programs. The first six use templates available
by downloading the free software, Hot Potatoes,
12
the seventh utilizes other
online tools,
13
and the last a webpage editor, Dreamweaver:
14