An Introduction to Applied Linguistics

lingua franca 1–2, 238
linguistic competence 109–10
linguistic interdependence hypothesis 223–4
linking 206–7
listening 195–6, 277–8
analysis methods 188–90
and authenticity, of task/text 190
cultural factors, influence of 188–9, 277–8
defining 180
influences on ease/difficulty 191
learner strategies 167–8, 186–7
models of 181–2
processes of 183–5
teaching methods 190, 192–4
types of 182–3, 185–6
and vocabulary learning 39
literals 35
logos 235
The Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written 
English 101
message abandonment/replacement 165
meta-cognitive strategies 166–7, 175, 186–7, 
226–7
Michigan Corpus of Academic Spoken English 
(MICASE) 96–7, 101
Middlesbrough English see Teeside Study
minimal pairs 210
Monitor theory 6, 110
monologue vs. dialogue 125, 139
morpheme studies 115–16
morphosyntax 22
motivation
choice motivation 170–1
cycle of 170
executive motivation/volition 170–2
self-motivation and self-confidence 171–2, 
174–5
social nature of 169–70
techniques 172–3
motivational retrospection 170, 172
multi-word units 12, 25, 200, 204, 210
narratives, characteristics of 200–1, 203
natural order hypothesis 110
negative evidence 5, 27
neuroscience 9, 131, 133–4, 139
non-verbal communication 135–6, 139, 165, 
204
norm-referenced tests 256
noticing hypothesis 83–4, 112
notional–functional syllabus 5
observation 189, 259–60
observer’s paradox 80, 152
Occupational English Test (Australia) 251–2
one-way listening 182–3
openings and closings, conversational 59
optical character recognition (OCR) 94
orthographic depth hypothesis 219–20
outcomes-based language assessment 264
overlaps, in conversation 58
paragraph pattern approach 239–40
pathos 235
pattern extraction 9
PDR model 77–8
peer interaction 29
pentad 235
perception, listening skill 186
performance
ability/performance constructs 249–51
pragmatic performance 85–6
self-assessment of 261–2
tests (see language assessment)
vs. competence 8
personality-based learning style preferences 
163–4
philosophy 57
phonemes 127–8, 154, 207, 210–11, 219, 279
phonetics 11, 126–7, 146–8, 207, 211
phonotactics 220
picture–word interference 130–1
pidgin languages 149–50
pitch 204–6, 210
politeness 59, 66, 149
Politeness Principle 75–7, 80
portfolios 260–1
power differential (PDR model) 77–8
pragmalinguist perspectives 76
pragmatics 8, 57, 87–8, 271
assigning reference 72–3
Co-operative Principle 73–5
and conversational analysis 78–9
defining 70–1
and direct/indirect communication 73–5
and grammar 22
influences on, context/social factors 74–9, 
82–6

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340 Index
pragmatics – cont.
and language teaching/learning, role in 81–6
noticing hypothesis 83–4
pragmatic meaning 71–2
pragmatic performance 85–6
pragmatic proficiency 83–6
pragmatic transfer 82–6
research methods 79–81
and semantics 71–2
socio-psychological pragmatics 79–81, 83
sociopragmatic perspectives 76
predicting 187
prestige 145–6, 150, 156
processability theory 113–14
processing, controlled vs. automatic 112
Productive Levels Test 45
proficiency 10, 83–6, 223–4
pronunciation 197, 203–7, 209–14
chunks/multi-word units 12, 25, 200, 204, 210
intonation 204–6
pitch/tone 204–6, 210
sound segments 206–7
stress/unstress 206
and topic management 205
turn-taking 204–5, 208
psycholinguistics 9, 124–5, 140–2, 273–4
code-switching 127–8, 134–5, 149, 165
cognitive consequences of 136–8
defining 124
and different language forms/scripts 131, 
133, 217–18
forgetting and relearning 137
gestures, use of 135–6, 139, 165, 204
historical attitudes towards 138
language choice 128–9
language production models 125–31
language separation 128, 131
lexical access 129, 132–3
picture–word interference 130–1
proficiency development, studies of 133–4
Speaking model 126–7
sub-set hypothesis 128
timing, of language production 129–30
trends in 139
psychological approaches, to language learning 
111–14
question–answer–feedback 61–2
questioning 187, 203
reaction-timing studies 9
reading
defining 215–16
extensive reading programmes 227–8
graded readers 38–9
in L2 216–17
and background knowledge 225–6
differences from L1 131, 133, 217–18
guessing 221–2
language threshold 223–4
orthographic depth hypothesis 219–20
reading rate, fluency/recognition 222–3
teaching implications 228–9
and text structure awareness 225–6
vocabulary 220–2
word recognition 218–20
learner strategies 168, 226–7, 230–1, 279
readers, roles of 233–4
tests for 254–6
and vocabulary learning 38–9
reading method, of teaching language 4
reciprocal/interactional listening 182
rehearsal strategies 164
relaxation 187
relevance theory 74–5
relexicalization 65–6
repetition 29, 40, 65–6, 165, 203, 210
restructuring, of language 112
retrieval strategies 164
retrospection studies 190
revision 235–6
rhetoric 3, 233, 236–7, 239–40
rich instruction 41
rule formation 26–7
satiation control strategies 175
savings method 137
schema (plural schemata) 184–5
self-assessment, of language performance 261–2
self-determination 172
semantics 22, 129
sense relation network sheets 152, 154
sensory/perceptual learning style preferences 
163–4
short-circuit hypothesis 223–4
Short Introduction to the English Grammar 3
showcase portfolios 260
sign language 136, 232
situated action model, listening 182
social/affective learner strategies 166–7, 
186–7, 226–7
social/contextual model, listening 181–2, 187
social mobility 150
social network relations 151
social semiotic linguistics 57
socio-psychological pragmatics 79–81, 83
sociocultural theory, of language learning 8, 
114, 169–70

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341
Index
sociolect 144
sociolinguistics 8, 157–60
data collection and analysis 151–6
defining 143
diachronic/synchronic axis 143
discourse analysis 57, 59–61
ethnography 57, 59–60
idiolect and sociolect 144
language variation 57, 61, 66–7, 146–51, 157
birth and death, of languages 149–50
chain-shift model 152
dialect-levelling model 152–3, 155
diffusion models 153, 155
discoursal variation 57, 61, 66–7, 149
grammatical variation 147–8
lexical variation 148–9
linguistic variation 146–7, 149–50
phonological variation 147
social influences on 150–1
Teeside Study 153–6, 274–5
SPEAKING grid 60
speech, categorizing characteristics of 143–6
sociology 57–9, 63, 113–14
sociopragmatic perspectives 76
sound segments 206–7
spaced repetition 40
speaking 197, 213–14, 278–9
abstract and coda in 200–1
accommodation 151, 153
characteristics of speech 143–6
chunks/multi-word units 12, 25, 200, 204, 210
codification 144, 200–1
dialect 145, 148–53
discourse analysis 54–9, 63–4, 270
formal vs. informal 56, 198–9
generic/schematic structures 200–2, 208
genres of 199–200
gestures, use of 135–6, 139, 165, 204
grammar, spoken vs. written 24, 63–4
idiolect and sociolect 144
intonation 204–6
learner strategies 168, 211–12
lexical patterns in 64–6