Base and derived adjectives Table of contents

3.2 Spelling of adjective endings
Adjectives are characterized by the fact that they do not have independent morphological features of gender, number and case. These signs are determined by the name of the noun with which the adjective is combined, i.e. is in agreement. In other words, the meanings of gender, number and case of an adjective are expressed syntactically.
1. Adjectives have endings similar to the endings of the interrogative word what, which is given on behalf of the noun: with a cheerful (what?) character, about a cheerful (what?) character, etc.
It should be distinguished:
a) adjectives of the masculine and neuter gender singular have endings -th (-im) in the instrumental case (what wind? Fresh, what abroad? Far) and endings -th (-th) in the prepositional case (about what wind? Fresh, o what abroad?
b) for adjectives of the feminine singular, the endings are -th (-th) in the accusative case (what road? Smooth, what dawn? Spring) and the endings -oh (-her) in the instrumental case (what road? Smooth, what dawn? Spring ).
2. In the genitive case of the singular number of masculine and neuter adjectives, the letter g is traditionally written at the end of the -th (-th), although it is pronounced in, for example: good, good, big, blue.
3. Possessive adjectives in -y, -ya, -e, -i (hare, hare, hare, hare) in all cases, except for the nominative and the accusative case of the masculine singular, similar to it, are written with ь: bearish, bearish, bearish, bearish, about bearish; bearish, bearish, bearish, bearish, bearish, oh bearish.
Such adjectives are formed from nouns with the suffix -j- (yot), therefore, before the ending, a separating ь is written as an indicator of this suffix.
4. Adjectives suburban, intercity, suburban change according to the solid variety of declension and are written with endings
-th, -th, -th, -th / e; adjectives out-of-town, endless change according to a mild variety of declension and are written with the endings -y, -ya, -her, -oe (forms out-of-town and endless are obsolete). The adjective long-distance has the variant long-distance.
5. Adjectives ending in -yny have a short form in -en in the nominative case of the masculine singular: sultry - sultry, calm - calm, slender - slender. Exception: worthy - worthy.
Compound adjectives are written together, formed from combinations of words, subordinate to one another in their meaning or according to the method of agreement (railway, cf. railway), or by the method of management (car repair, cf. repair of cars), or by the method of adjoining (lightly wounded, cf. easy to hurt). For example: mountain rescue station (rescue in the mountains), woodworking plant (woodworking), natural science views (natural sciences), left-bank lowland (left bank).
The rule applies to the spelling of complex adjectives formed from a combination of an adjective with a noun that acts as a geographical name, for example: Velikie Luki (Velikiye Luki), Vyshnevolotsky (Vyshny Volochek). See also: Karlovy Vary (Karlovy Vary).
Many complex adjectives are written together, used as scientific and technical terms or expressions in the book language, for example: nitrate, perpetual, evergreen, air-dry, geological exploration, biconcave, wild-growing, long-fibered, viviparous, posterofemoral,
For many complex adjectives of this group, the first part is formed by the words:
high-: high-vitamin, highly paid;
low-: low-flying, low-humus;
deep-: deep-seated, deeply respected;
fine-: small-scale, fine-grained;
heavily-: heavily loaded, seriously wounded;
hard-: hard-to-reach, difficult-to-pass;
widely-: widely available, widely representative;
narrowly: narrowly departmental, highly specialized;
multi-: multi-branch, multi-layer;
little-: insignificant, little-visited;
strongly-: potent, strongly alkaline;
weakly: slightly acidic, slightly peaty;
thick-: thick-legged, thick-walled;
fine-: thin-voiced, finely ground;
densely: densely double, densely populated;
large-: large-block, large-panel;
steep-: steeply curved, steeply turned;
acute: acute purulent, acute deficiency;
flat: plane-parallel, flat-cupped;
pure-: pure silver, pure wool;
above-: above average, above;
below-: the undersigned, the undersigned.
In the presence of explanatory words, a free phrase (adverb and adjective or participle) is usually formed, and not a terminological compound word. Wed: densely populated areas - slums densely populated by blacks; little-studied problems - little-studied areas of medicine by science. Cases like economically underdeveloped countries (continuous spelling, despite the presence of explanatory words) are rare. Word order also plays a role: the compound adjective usually precedes the noun it defines, and the phrase usually follows it; cf .: perishable products - products that quickly deteriorate in the summer. In compound words, one stress is placed (sometimes with a side stress on the first basis), and in phrases - two independent stresses; compare:
A continuous spelling of a complex adjective is obligatory if one of its parts is not used as an independent word, for example: generally understandable (the first part is not used independently), narrow-chested (the second part does not exist in the language as a separate word). Wed confluent spelling of words, in which the first part is the elements of upper-, lower-, ancient-, middle-, early-, late-, general-, for example: upper throat, lower Saxon, Old Church Slavonic, Old High German, Central Asian, medium-carbon, early-flowering, late-ripening, common folk .
Adjectives are the most numerous group of words in the English language after nouns. Of the 60 thousand words contained in the "English - Russian Dictionary" prof. VK. Muller, adjectives account for approximately 8600 units; of which about 1200 are root, the rest are derivatives.
As rightly noted by V.G. Admoni, already in ancient times, people paid attention to the fact that the words they used in their native language behave differently in speech. Some words name objects; others - actions, processes; the third - qualities, properties of objects. These observations, which were noted by the ancient Indian and ancient Greek grammarians, gave them the basis for highlighting the lexical and grammatical categories of words. The first classifications of parts of speech belong to such scientists as Aristotle, Aristarchus of Samothrace, Dionysius of Thrace [1, p. 100].
1.1 The concept of the name of the adjective, its features and functions
The adjective name denotes a non-procedural, static attribute of an object in the broad sense of the word: properties, qualities, various relationships that characterize persons and objects of objective reality, namely, the external qualities of persons and objects (beautiful - beautiful, scabrous - rough, freckled - freckled ), internal features ( shy - shy, cruel - cruel, modest - modest), spatial relations ( low - low, boundless - boundless, shot - short), temporal relations ( summery - summer, annual - annual, daily - - daily), color, taste, physical condition, shape of objects (black - black, salt - salty, liquid - liquid, round - round), etc.
An adjective is a part of speech that names a feature of an object that has a known conditional stability: a clean dress, a high hill. In the adjective form, there is no indication that this feature develops over time, as an action, and this is exactly what is meant when we talk about the conditional stability of the feature: if we compare a fast train and an approaching train; in the last example, the trait is expressed as evolving over time.
The adjective name denotes a statistical attribute of an object, its quality, a property inherent or attributed to it, and is opposed, on the one hand, to an adverb expressing a dynamic and statistical attribute of an action, on the other hand, to a noun as a designation of the object itself. Unlike nouns, adjectives in modern English do not have categories of number and case.
There are qualitative and derived adjectives in English. Qualitative adjectives denote a property inherent in the object itself or discovered in it. The core of this category is made up of adjectives, the basis of which denotes a sign not through relation to the subject. This includes words that name such properties and qualities that are perceived by the senses: color (white, red, dark), spatial (fragrant, rich), temporary (long, short, narrow), physical and other qualifying signs, qualities of character and mental warehouse [36, 10].
Qualitative adjectives denote such features (qualities) of an object that distinguish one object from another in shape (round round), in size (small - small), in property (solid - solid), in color (black - black), in taste ( sweet - sweet) and so on. Qualitative adjectives for the most part express such a sign that is characteristic of an object, event, phenomenon to a greater or lesser extent. Semi-qualitative adjectives have degrees of comparison [8, 32].
Qualitative adjectives form the corresponding adverbs with the suffix -ly: quick - quickly, bright - brightly, firm - firmly [2, 26].
Comparing different lexico-grammatical categories of adjectives in terms of their connotative possibilities, one can notice that qualitative adjectives are richer in connotations than derived ones with the same root: glassy, ​​gold, golden, and so on [36, 40].
Derived adjectives according to their meaning can be mainly divided into the following groups:
a) adjectives denoting the features of objects through relation to the material from which they are made: a wooden table (wooden table); and glass door (glass (glass door).
(Note: glass can be translated as either a noun or an adjective, according to the Oxford Dictionary)
b) adjectives denoting features of objects through relation to time: a monthly / weekly magazine (monthly; weekly magazine); daily program (daily program)
c) adjectives denoting signs through relation to nationality or location: European countries (European countries); urban life (urban life)
d) adjectives denoting signs through relation to the field of activity, occupation: scientific progress (scientific progress):
e) adjectives denoting signs through relation to the nature of the social system: communist society (communist society), socialist ideology (socialist ideology), capitalist countries (capitalist countries) [2, 13].
Derived adjectives do not change in degrees of comparison. Derived adjectives can only act in an attributive function: an iron bridge; a silver watch. They cannot be used predicatively (one cannot say: the bridge is iron; the watch is silver).
Some suffixes are indicators of derived adjectives: -en (wooden); -ic (economic); -ical (mathematical); -ist (communist, socialist) [23,146].
Derived adjectives call a sign of an object that cannot be manifested with varying degrees of intensity. It should be noted that there is no strict distinction between qualitative and derived adjectives. Depending on the context, a derived adjective can take on the meaning of a qualitative adjective: a silver watch (silver watch) (derived ), a silver stream (silver river) (qualitative), an iron bridge (iron bridge) (derived ), an iron will (iron will) (qualitative). In some cases, when it comes to behavior, character, derived adjectives, acquiring the meaning of quality adjectives, can also have degrees of comparison: The life there had been more English than in England and MacGregor has always been outside it John is very English.
If the suffix -en is attached to the derived adjectives gold, silk, flax, wax, then they acquire a qualitative meaning: and gold watch (gold watch) - golden memories (golden memories) [2, 36].
(Note: the words gold, silk, flax can be translated as both a noun and an adjective according to the Oxford Dictionary)
Also, adjectives can be divided into simple, derivative and complex [17,145].
Simple adjectives include adjectives that do not have either prefixes or suffixes in their composition: big, short, black, red [22, 30].
Derived adjectives include adjectives that have suffixes and prefixes in their composition, or both at the same time: natural, incorrect, unnatural [22,30].
The characteristic suffix adjectives include the following: - full: useful (useful), hopeful (hoping); -less: useless (useless), homeless (homeless); -ous: famous (famous), courageous (courageous); -able (ible): eatable (edible), visible (visible) [23,143].
The most used adjective prefixes are: un: unhappy (unhappy), unequal (unequal) in: incomplete (incomplete), indifferent (indifferent) [34,13].
Complex adjectives include adjectives consisting of two or more stems that form one word with a single meaning: self-satisfied- self-satisfied, out-of-work-unemployed, heart-breaking-heartbreaking.
In his work “Philosophy of Grammar”, Otto Jespersen combines the adjective and noun into one category, arguing as follows: among the designations of the same person, there are such combinations that contain two components that are with each other in relations of this order: little man - little man, principal physician, old doctor - old doctor. We call the words little - small, principal - chief and old - old adjectives, a man - person, physician - doctor and doctor - nouns [39, p.80].
According to O. Jespersen, adjectives and nouns have much in common, and there are cases when it is difficult to say which category a given word belongs to, so the scientist uses the term name (Latin nomen) to refer to this general category, which includes nouns and adjectives [39, p.80].
In general, nouns have more irregular formations than adjectives (such are indeclinable and insufficient nouns, nouns in which different cases are formed from different stems). The adjective designates and emphasizes one quality, one characteristic property, and the noun, for anyone who understands it, includes many characteristic features; by them, the listener recognizes the person or object in question [39, p.80].
It is impossible not to note the originality of the considered approach, however, the proposed interpretation greatly simplifies the consideration of borderline cases, such as substantiation of the adjective, and in general does not reflect many of the specific features inherent in the adjective.
M.Ya. Bloch, highlighting the adjective in a series of four significant parts of speech (noun, verb, adverb), defines this class as "significantly represented denotations of subject matter." In accordance with their functional nature, adjectives are the names of an objective attribute and have a number of linguistic and functional features: a) the categorical meaning of a property / attribute (qualitative or derived ), b) the presence of forms of degrees of comparison (for qualitative adjectives) and specific derivational suffixal forms, c) adjective function in a sentence (is a definition with a noun or a nominal part of a compound predicate) [14, p. 110].
Having considered various approaches to the definition of an adjective, we came to the conclusion that most linguists note the semantic and functional dependence of the adjective on the noun. This feature has a significant impact on the analysis of the functioning of the adjective in English and Russian, since it is equally characteristic of these language systems.
As a working definition of an adjective, we follow I.P. Ivanova we will use the following: an adjective is a part of speech that names a sign of an object. The integral features of the adjective name, which allow language researchers to single it out into a separate class of words, are its grammatical categories or paradigms of form and inflection. Let us dwell in detail on the main characteristics of this part of speech. The grammatical meaning of an adjective, according to many linguists, is the main core of its morphological structure, lexical properties and syntactic functioning.
According to I.P. Ivanova, adjectives in the system of the English language express a quality feature, and in this case, as a rule, this feature, when objectified, is transmitted by a noun formed from an adjectival stem: red - redness, brief - brevity, long - length. An adjective can express a sign through relation to an object - a derived sign - and then usually this adjective is itself derived from a noun: ice - icy, industry - industrial, week - weekly, wood - wooden [27, c.43] .
The group is controversial, which, according to some of its features, can be attributed to adjectives expressing quantity - much, many, little, few. Morphologically, they are close to adjectives, as they have degrees of comparison. In their other properties, they are close to numerals, as well as to pronouns. Essentially, they stand between these three parts of speech. It seems that this group should be considered as an interfield group that combines the properties of numerals, adjectives and pronouns.
In modern linguistics, the question of the paradigm of adjective inflection is acute. The only form of inflection of adjectives in the English language is the degree of comparison, which conveys a different intensity of a feature in comparison with objects that have the same feature [6, p.68].
However, not all adjectives are able to convey varying degrees of intensity of a particular property. As a rule, this ability is absent from derived adjectives in their direct meaning, although occasionally these forms can occur in a figurative meaning. Qualitative adjectives change in degrees of comparison, except for those cases when an absolute quality is indicated (for example: blind, dead).
The morphological form of the degrees of comparison in its use is limited by the phonetic composition of the adjective, primarily by its syllabic structure: only monosyllabic ones undoubtedly change morphologically, taking the ending -er in a comparative degree, in the superlative -est: short, shorter, the shortest Disyllabic can change morphologically or convey a degree qualities in the phrase: lovelier, more lovely; the loveliest, the most lovely. There are some more restrictions, for example, for adjectives with two plosives: direct, rapt; these adjectives usually do not form morphological comparative forms, although strict can take the forms stricter, the strictest. Polysyllabic adjectives do not have morphological forms of comparison, the degree of quality is conveyed in them by combinations with more, the most: more difficult,
There is a fairly common view of these combinations as analytical forms of the adjective, due to their apparent parallelism with morphological forms of comparison. However, firstly, the adverbs toge and most usually retain their lexical meaning, and, importantly, these combinations are lexically opposed to combinations with less, least, which convey, respectively, a decrease in the degree of quality. It would be logical in this case to classify these last combinations also as analytic forms, but then the parallelism with the morphological system proper, which does not have forms with the value of decreasing degree, is violated. On the other hand, combinations of the word, most also include the so-called elative combinations of the type a most important point, which convey a high degree of quality, beyond comparison with anything. If elative combinations are also considered as analytical forms, then, apparently, combinations with very, extremely, synonymous with elative combinations, should also be included here, especially since morphological forms that do not have an elative in their composition (it is impossible a bravest action) are able to express high degree of quality only combination with most; a most brave action. The boundaries of "analytical" forms are thus very vague. As we can see, the functioning of comparative combinations and morphological forms is far from parallel. But the most important argument against referring combinations with more, most to analytic forms is the syntactic weight of the adverbs toge and most. There are no syntactic relations between the components of analytic forms; meanwhile, toge and most retain adverbial relations with the adjective to the same extent as any other adverbs of degree: cf. more attractive, less attractive, very attractive, rather attractive [6, c.69-71].
The question of the features of the syntactic functioning of the adjective deserves special attention. The main function of the adjective is the position of the definition, more characteristic is the prepositive functioning. However, a post-position is also possible, which creates a greater semantic weight of the definition, which in these cases turns out to be isolated and, therefore, bearing a well-known semantic stress: The bitter cold; there a light glowed, warm, tawny, against the stark brightness of the night. (Snow). The second function of the adjective is the function of the predicative member: Not was grave and tense with his news. It should be noted that although most adjectives can act in both functions, for some only one of them is possible. So, adjectives joint, live, lone, daily, weekly, monthly and are used only attributively: a joint enterprise, a lone wolf, her daily visits. Adjectives denoting a relationship to something or a state are used only predicatively: glad, averse (to), bound for, concerned. The adjectives certain, ill change their semantics depending on whether they are used in a predicative or attributive function: cf. and certain person --I am certain the report is ready [6, c.68].
It should be noted that linguists who single out the words of the state category in English as a special part of speech usually refer ill to the words of the state category. Attributive usage is limited to a few stable combinations that can be considered lexicalized: ill news; it's an ill wind that blows nobody any good [6, c.68].
Complex adjectives are written with a hyphen, formed from complex nouns with hyphenated writing, for example: anarcho-syndicalist, northeastern, south-southwestern, north-east, life guards, Ivanovo-Voznesensk, New York.
In the presence of a prefix, such adjectives are written together, for example: anti-Social Democratic, Amu Darya.
Complex adjectives are written with a hyphen, formed from a combination of a first and last name, a first name and patronymic, or two surnames, for example: Walter Scott novels, Jules Verne fiction, Robin Hood adventures, Jack London works.
In some cases, there is a continuous spelling, for example: Veropavlovsk workshops (from the name and patronymic of the heroine of the novel by N.G. Chernyshevsky "What is to be done?"), Kozmakryukovskaya daring, Tarasobulbovskaya strength.
When an adjective is formed from a foreign surname, which is preceded by a function word, the latter is written together, for example: de Broglie hypothesis (cf. de Broglie).
Adjectives formed from Chinese, Korean, Vietnamese and other Eastern compound proper names of persons are written together, for example: Chiang Kai-shek clique (cf. Chiang Kai-shek).
Compound adjectives are written with a hyphen, formed from two or more words denoting equal concepts; between parts of such adjectives in their initial form, you can insert a coordinating union and or but: commercial and industrial capital (commercial and industrial), interest-free winning loan (interest-free, but winning). For example: agitation and propaganda, question-answer, convex-concave, gastrointestinal, magazine and newspaper, leather and shoe, red-white-green (flag), reporting and election, fruit and vegetable (but: fruit and vegetable from - fruits) , worker-peasant.
The first part of compound adjectives of this type can be the basis of a noun or adjective, cf .: alcoholic beverages (from liquor and vodka) - alcoholic beverage industry (liqueur and vodka); acceptance point (admission and delivery) - acceptance and transfer exams (admission and transfer).
Many complex adjectives are written with a hyphen, parts of which indicate heterogeneous features, for example: Military Medical Academy (cf .: Military Medical Academy), voluntary sports societies (voluntary sports), people's liberation movement (people's liberation), official business style (formal business).
Adjectives of this type often begin with the following stems:
military: military-revolutionary, military-surgical, military-legal (the words liable for military service, prisoner of war, serviceman belong to a different type of word formation);
mass-: mass-political, mass-stream, mass-sports;
people's: people's state, people's democratic, people's poetic, people's revolutionary (the adjective national economy is formed from the subordinating combination national economy);
scientific: research, popular science, scientific and practical, scientific and educational, scientific and technical;
educational-: educational-auxiliary, educational-consulting, educational-methodical, educational-demonstrative, educational-industrial.
Some complex adjectives, parts of which indicate heterogeneous features, are written together, for example: modern Greek (new Greek), early slave system (early slave).
Compound adjectives are written with a hyphen, denoting a quality with an additional connotation, for example: bitter-salty water (i.e. salty with a bitter aftertaste), booming-loud voice (i.e. loud, turning into peals), peaceful non-resistance policy, lacerated wound.
Compound adjectives are written with a hyphen, denoting shades of colors, for example: pale blue, faded pink, bottle green, bluish-violet, golden red, blue-black.
Many complex adjectives of a terminological nature are written with a hyphen, for example: amplitude-frequency (characteristic), atomic-molecular, legume-cereal, bourgeois-democratic, fan-shaped-folded, gas-dust (nebula).
Some of the compound adjectives of this type have the suffixes -at-, -ist-, -ov- in the first stem, for example: dentate-lanceolate (leaves), paniculate-thyroid (inflorescences), membranous-scaly (sheath).
Often, as the first part of a complex adjective, the stems are vertical, horizontal, transverse, longitudinal, etc., for example: vertical drilling, vertical milling.
Compound adjectives are written through a hyphen, in which the stem of the first part, formed from words of foreign origin, ends in -iko, for example: dialectical-materialistic, historical-archival, critical-bibliographic, medical-judicial, mechanical-thermal, political-mass, technical -economic.
Compound adjectives are written with a hyphen (from capital letters in constituent parts) that are included in complex geographical or administrative names and begin with the stem of East, West, North (North), South (South), for example: East European plain, West Korea Bay, Northwest Pakistan, South Australian Basin.
In a common sense, such adjectives are written together with a lowercase letter, cf .: South Ural Railway - South Ural flora and fauna.
Complex adjectives are written with a hyphen, formed from a combination of an adjective with a noun, but with a rearrangement of these elements, for example: literary and artistic (cf. fiction), vocabulary and technical (cf. technical dictionaries).
There are complex adjectives that form one word (with continuous or hyphenated spelling), and phrases consisting of an adverb in -o (-e) and an adjective or participle (with separate spelling); to the adverb playing the role of a separate member of the sentence, you can put the appropriate question.
moral-political level - a morally stable person (in what respect stable?);
socio-historical laws - socially dangerous elements (dangerous for whom?);
the industrial and transport department is an industrialized country (developed in what respect?).
Table - Plan for parsing the name of an adjective

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