Biotechnology

EPSPS See
EPSP SYNTHASE
,
CP
4
EPSPS
,
m
EPSPS
.
ER See
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
.
Ergotamine A mycotoxin (i.e., metabolite
produced by a fungus, that is toxic to animals
and humans) produced by the fungus (Clav-
iceps spp.) known as ergot. Ergotamine is an
alkaloid vasoconstrictor, whose consump-
tion can lead to severe constriction of blood
vessels in the brain and extremities, causing
hallucinations and dry gangrene. Humans
whose bodies are deficient in vitamin A are
especially vulnerable to ergotism (“ergot
poisoning”). See also 
MYCOTOXINS
,
TOXIN
,
FUNGUS
,
VITAMIN
.
Erwinia caratovora A species of bacteria that
can cause significant postharvest losses to
potato farmers, when it infects potatoes and
causes “soft rot” (spoilage). See also 
BACTERIA
,
SPECIES
.
Erwinia uredovora See
GOLDEN RICE
.
Erythrocytes (red blood cells) Hemoglobin-
containing cells (manufactured in the bone
marrow) that transport the oxygen from the
lungs to the body tissues where it is needed.
Erythropoiesis The formation of red blood
cells from certain stem cells. Stimulated by
the protein erythropoietin. See also 
STEM
CELLS
,
ERYTHROPOIETIN
 (
EPO
).
Erythropoietin (EPO) A glycoprotein hor-
mone produced in the kidneys that stimu-
lates stem cells in the bone marrow to
increase the number of red blood cells.
Erythropoietin can be used to help correct a
variety of anemias. See also 
GLYCOPROTEIN
,
HORMONE
,
ERYTHROCYTES
,
STEM CELLS
.
Escherichia coli See
ESCHERICHIA COLIFORM
(
E
.
COLI
).
Escherichia coli 0157:H7 (E. coli 0157:H7)
See
ESCHERICHIA COLIFORM
0157
:
H
7
.
Escherichia coliform (E. coli) A bacterium
that commonly inhabits the human intestine
as well as the intestine of other vertebrates
(animals possessing a skeleton). The most
thoroughly studied of all bacteria, Escherichia
coli is used in many microbiological experi-
ments. It has historically been considered the
workhorse of genetic engineering research,
and genetically engineered versions have
been used to produce human proteins (e.g.,
insulin). One of the more exotic uses of
genetically engineered E. coli was to make
indigo dye (originally discovered in 1983,
using indole or tryptophan as starting mate-
rials). In 1993, Burt D. Ensley and cowork-
ers at Amgen discovered a way to genetically
engineer E. coli to produce indigo from glu-
cose starting material. E. coli has 4,288
genes. See also 
TRYPTOPHAN
  (
trp
),
BACTERIA
,
GENETIC ENGINEERING
,
GENE
,
RECOMBINANT DNA
(
r
DNA
),
ESCHERICHIA COLIFORM
0157
:
H
7
.
Escherichia coliform 0157:H7 The particular
strain (serotype) of Escherichia coliform
(E. coli) bacteria that causes often-fatal diar-
rhea, internal bleeding, and kidney damage
in humans. Children are more susceptible to
E. coli 0157:H7 than adults, because chil-
dren possess more of the receptors (on cells
inside the digestive tract) that are utilized by
E. coli 0157:H7 to enter the body from the
digestive tract. Although cattle were suscep-
tible to E. coli 0157:H7’s toxins prior to the
1980s, they eventually developed resistance.
That meant that the cattle could carry these
bacteria without getting sick, and transmit
E. coli 0157:H7 to humans whenever condi-
tions allow (e.g., when E. coli 0157:H7-
infected cattle are slaughtered and people
consume the meat without first heating it to
a high enough temperature to kill the E. coli
0157:H7). Some varieties of E. coli 0157:H7
are resistant to the antibiotics tetracycline
and streptomycin. In 1996, researchers at
Cornell University in New York state,
U.S.A., discovered that nonambulatory cows
(that could not walk) were approximately
four times as likely as other cows to test
positive for E. coli 0157:H7. Other research
in Canada indicates that fasting of cattle
(common occurrence for nonambulatory
cows) tends to alter the pH inside the cow’s
rumen (stomach) in a way that encourages
the proliferation of E. coli 0157:H7 instead
of the bacteria that normally populate the
rumen. See also 
ESCHERICHIA COLIFORM
(
E
.
COLI
),
BACTERIA
,
SEROTYPES
,
TOXIN
,
RECEP-
TORS
,
BIOLUMINESCENCE
,
STRAIN
,
ENTEROTOXIN
,
COMMENSAL
.
© 2002 by CRC Press LLC

E
Essential Amino Acids Those amino acids
that cannot be synthesized by humans and
most other vertebrates, and therefore must
be obtained from the diet. They are pheny-
lalanine, valine, threonine, tryptophan, iso-
leucine, methionine, histidine, arginine,
leucine, and lysine (glycine and proline for
poultry). See also 
AMINO ACID
,
LYSINE
  (
lys
),
METHIONINE
 (
met
),
SOY PROTEIN
,
OPAGUE
-2
,
PRO-
TEIN DIGESTIBILITY
-
CORRECTED AMINO ACID
SCORING
 (
PDCAAS
).
Essential Fatty Acids The group of polyun-
saturated fatty acids of plants that are
required in the human diet, because the
human body cannot synthesize (manufac-
ture) them, yet must have them for proper
functioning (of the body’s metabolism,
immune system function, etc.). These
include linoleic acid, linolenic acid, arachi-
donic acid, and docosahexanoic acid. If
humans and other higher animals do not con-
sume enough essential fatty acids per day,
they suffer decreased growth rates, increased
susceptibility to infection, impaired repro-
duction, kidney damage, and other adverse
physiological effects. See also 
FATTY ACID
,
SOYBEAN OIL
,
LECITHIN
,
FATS
,
ESSENTIAL NUTRI-
ENTS
,
POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS
  (
PUFA
),
LINOLEIC ACID
,
LINOLENIC ACID
,
DOCOSAHEX-
ANOIC ACID
 (
DHA
),
ARACHIDONIC ACID
 (
AA
).
Essential Nutrients Chemical compounds in
foods required for (consuming organism’s)
life, growth, or tissue repair, and cannot be
synthesized by that organism. See also
ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS
,
ESSENTIAL FATTY
ACIDS
,
ESSENTIAL POLYUNSATURATED FATTY
ACIDS
,
VITAMIN
.
Essential Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids See
ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS
.
EST See
EXPRESSED SEQUENCE TAGS
 (
EST
).
Estrogen A female sex hormone, secreted by
the ovaries, that promotes estrus and helps
to regulate the pituitary gland’s production
of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-
stimulating hormone (FSH). Estrogen
causes proliferation of breast tissue (cells)
and is also responsible for the development
of female secondary sex characteristics (e.g.,
smaller body size, lack of facial hair, higher
pitch voice in humans). Research indicates
that lack of estrogen (e.g., in post-menopausal
women) makes humans more prone to colon
cancer and heart disease, but less prone to
the “hormone dependent” cancers (ovarian
cancer, uterine cancer, etc.). See also 
HOR-
MONE
,
PITUITARY GLAND
,
FOLLICLE STIMULATING
HORMONE
  (
FSH
),
SELECTIVE ESTROGEN EFFECT
,
TESTOSTERONE
,
LUTEINIZING HORMONE
  (
LH
),
HYPOTHALAMUS
,
CANCER
,
CELL
.
Ethylene A plant hormone synthesized (man-
ufactured) by some plants to induce ripening
(of their fruit). See also 
PLANT HORMONE
,
ACC
SYNTHASE
,
ACC
,
SAM
-
K GENE
.
Etiological Agent (of a disease) The microor-
ganism (or other agent) that causes the dis-
ease. See also 
PATHOGEN
,
ETIOLOGY
.
Etiology The science (study) of the cause
(source) of a disease. See also 
PATHOGEN
,
ETIOLOGICAL AGENT
.
Eucaryote Also spelled eukaryote. A cell char-
acterized by compartmentalization (by
membranes) of its extensive internal struc-
tures; or an organism made up of such cells.
For example, eucaryotes possess a distinct
membrane-surrounded nucleus containing
the DNA. Eucaryotic cells (e.g., human
cells) are much larger and more complex
than procaryotic cells (e.g., bacteria). The
cells of all higher organisms, both plant and
animal, are eucaryotic, so those higher (com-
plex) organisms are often referred to as
eucaryotes. Most eucaryotic organisms can-
not survive temperatures greater than 131°F
(55°C). However, one called the Pompeii
worm (Alvinella pompejana) can withstand
long-term exposure in water up to a tempera-
ture of 176°F (80°C). See also 
PROCARYOTES
,
CELL
,
THERMOPHILE
,
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID
(
DNA
),
PLASMA
,
MEMBRANE
,
MICROTUBULES
.
Eugenics First formulated by Francis Galton,
who was a contemporary of Gregor Mendel
in the 19th century, eugenics is the concept
that a species can be “improved” by encour-
aging reproduction of only those organisms
in that species that possess “desired” traits.
This belief became popular in a number of
countries during the early 20th century. Mar-
garet Sanger, founder of America’s Planned
Parenthood organization, referred to Afri-
can-Americans as “human weeds” and
called for “more children from the fit, less
from the unfit.” Based upon Charles Darwin’s
© 2002 by CRC Press LLC

E
written assertion that “the civilized races of
man will almost certainly exterminate and
replace the savage races,” a number of large
genocides were committed by national gov-
ernments. See also 
GENETICS
,
GENE
,
TRAIT
,
GENOTYPE
,
HEREDITY
,
HERITABILITY
,
GENOME
.
Eukaryote See
EUCARYOTE
.
Euploid A cell carrying an exact multiple of
the haploid chromosome number. For exam-
ple, a diploid possesses twice the haploid
number of chromosomes. See also 
HAPLOID
,
DIPLOID
,
CHROMOSOMES
.
European Corn Borer (ECB) Also known as
pyralis. Latin name Ostrinia nubilalis, it is
an insect whose larvae (caterpillars) eat and
bore into the corn/maize plant (Zea
mays L.). In doing so, they can act as vectors
(i.e., carriers) of the fungi known as
Aspergillus flavus (source of aflatoxin) or
Fusarium moniliforme (source of fumonisin)
or Aspergillus parasiticus (source of afla-
toxin). Full-grown ECB larvae winter by
sheltering inside a variety of vegetative
materials (e.g., plant stalks lying on top of
soil in some fields). ECB control can be
effected by some of the following methods:
1. Spraying of conventional synthetic
chemical pesticides
2. Spraying of pesticides produced via
promulgation of Bacillus thuringiensis
(B.t.) bacteria
3. Incorporating a (protoxin) gene from
Bacillus thuringiensis  (B.t.) into the
DNA of the corn plant, so that the plant
itself produces B.t. protoxin
As part of Integrated Pest Management
(IPM), farmers can utilize:
1. Corn possessing Bacillus thuringiensis
(B.t.) gene(s) to control populations of
ECB without applying insecticides
2. The parasitic Euplectrus comstockki
wasp to help control the ECB. (When
that wasp’s venom is injected into ECB
larva, it stops the larva from molting
and thus maturing)
3. Additional methods, alone or in con-
cert with above
See also 
CORN
,
FUNGUS
,
AFLATOXIN
,
INTEGRATED
PEST MANAGEMENT
 (
IPM
),
BACILLUS THURINGIENSIS
(
B
.
t
.),
B
.
t
.
KURSTAKI
,
FUSARIUM
,
FUSARIUM MONILI-
FORME
,
ASIAN CORN BORER
,
PROTOXIN
,
VOLICITIN
.
European Medicines Evaluation Agency
(EMEA) A London-based agency of the
European Union (EU) that began operation
in 1995. It coordinates drug licensing and
safety matters throughout the nations of the
EU. Its licensing/approval process is com-
pulsory throughout the EU. See also 
COMMIT-
TEE FOR PROPRIETARY MEDICINAL PRODUCTS
(
CPMP
),
MEDICINES CONTROL AGENCY
  (
MCA
),
FOOD AND DRUG ADMINISTRATION
  (
FDA
),
KOSEISHO
,
BUNDESGESUNDHEITSAMT
  (
BGA
),
COMMITTEE ON SAFETY IN MEDICINES
,
COMMITTEE
FOR VETERINARY MEDICINAL PRODUCTS
 (
CVMP
).
European Patent Convention A n   i n t e r n a -
tional patent treaty signed in 1973, by which
the countries of Europe agreed to recognize
and honor the patents granted by each coun-
try, plus those patents granted by the Euro-
pean Patent Office (EPO). Plant varieties or
animal breeds were initially excluded from
patentability by the European Patent Con-
vention. In 1998, the European Parliament
removed that exclusion. See also 
EUROPEAN
PATENT OFFICE
  (
EPO
),
U
.
S
.
PATENT AND TRADE-
MARK OFFICE
  (
USPTO
),
PLANT
’
S NOVEL TRAIT
(
PNT
),
PLANT BREEDER
’
S RIGHTS
  (
PBR
),
UNION
FOR PROTECTION OF NEW VARIETIES OF PLANTS
(
UPOV
).
European Patent Office (EPO) The Munich,
Germany-based agency of the European
Union (EU) — established in 1977 — that
is responsible for common patent protection
matters for all of the (EU) member countries,
plus the non-EU countries of Switzerland
and Liechtenstein. The European Patent
Office originally did not allow a “plant or
animal breed” to be patented, whereas its
U.S. counterpart — the U.S. Patent and
Trademark Office (USPTO) — does allow
patenting of microbes, plants, and animals
(e.g., those which have been genetically engi-
neered by man). In 1998, the European Par-
liament removed that exclusion, and in 1999,
the European Patent Court issued a ruling
which caused the European Patent Conven-
tion to allow patents on novel plants, thus
making the two patent systems compatible.
© 2002 by CRC Press LLC

E
See also 
EUROPEAN PATENT CONVENTION
,
MICROBE
,
GENETIC ENGINEERING
,
BIOTECHNOL-
OGY
,
AMERICAN TYPE CULTURE COLLECTION
(
ATCC
),
U
.
S
.
PATENT AND TRADEMARK OFFICE
(
USPTO
),
PLANT
’
S NOVEL TRAIT
  (
PNT
),
PLANT
BREEDER
’
S RIGHTS
 (
PBR
),
UNION FOR PROTECTION
OF NEW VARIETIES OF PLANTS
 (
UPOV
),
COMMUNITY
PLANT VARIETY OFFICE
.
European Plant Protection Organization
(EPPO) One of the international SPS stan-
dard-setting organizations that develops
plant health standards, guidelines, and rec-
ommendations (e.g., to prevent transfer of a
plant disease or plant pest from one country
to another). Its secretariat is in Paris, France.
EPPO, one of the organizations within the
International Plant Protection Convention
(IPPC), covers the countries of Europe. See
also
INTERNATIONAL PLANT PROTECTION CON-
VENTION
  (
IPPC
),
NORTH AMERICAN PLANT PRO-
TECTION ORGANIZATION
  (
NAPPO
),
SPS
,
PLANT
’
S
NOVEL TRAIT
  (
PNT
),
PLANT BREEDER
’
S RIGHTS
(
PBR
).
Event Refers to each instance of a genetically
engineered organism. For example, the same
gene inserted by man into a given plant
genome at two different locations (loci)
along that plant’s DNA would be considered
two different events. Alternatively, two dif-
ferent genes inserted into the same locus of
two same-species plants would also be con-
sidered two different events. Generally
speaking, the world’s regulatory agencies
confer new biotech-derived product approv-
als in terms of events. See also 
GENETIC ENGI-
NEERING
,
GENETICALLY ENGINEERED ORGANISM
(
GEO
),
GENE
,
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID
  (
DNA
),
LOCUS
,
LOCI
,
GENOME
,
MUTUAL RECOGNITION
AGREEMENTS
 (
MRAS
).
Excision The cutting out of a piece of damaged
or defective DNA by enzymes. DNA dam-
age might be constituted by the presence of
a thymine dimer which inactivates that part
of the DNA. The region of the dimer is cut
out and then repaired. See also 
RECOMBINATION
,
GENOME
,
INFORMATIONAL MOLECULES
.
Excitatory Amino Acids (EAAs) Amino acids
present in the brain (when released by cer-
tain immune system cells) that can kill brain
cells when in excess (e.g., results from
strokes, which cause the release of too many
EAAs in the brain). Another source of harm-
ful EAAs (e.g., glutamate) is the disease
known as multiple sclerosis. Some spiders
paralyze their prey with venom that contains
a substance that blocks the action of EAAs;
thus, pharmaceuticals based on an active
ingredient in that venom may someday be
used to prevent brain damage in stroke and
in multiple sclerosis victims. See also 
AMINO
ACID
,
MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS
,
CELL
,
IMMUNE
RESPONSE
.
Exclusion Chromatography See
GEL FILTRA-
TION
.
Exergonic Reaction A chemical reaction with
a negative standard free energy change (i.e.,
a “downhill” reaction). A reaction which
releases energy (exothermic; in the form of
heat). See also 
ENDERGONIC REACTION
,
FREE
ENERGY
.
Exobiology Extraterrestrial biology.
Exocytosis The releasing of an entity that was
bound inside an “endosome” (e.g., inside a
cell). See also 
ENDOCYTOSIS
.
Exoglycosidase An enzyme that hydrolyzes
(cuts) only a terminal (end) bond in the oli-
gosaccharide (molecular) branch(es) of a
glycoprotein. See also 
ENDOGLYCOSIDASE
,
GLYCOPROTEIN
,
RESTRICTION ENDOGLYCOSIDASES
.
Exon The segment of a eucaryotic gene that is
transcribed into an mRNA (messenger RNA)
molecule; it codes for a specific domain of
a protein. See also 
PROTEIN
,
EUCARYOTE
,
MESSENGER RNA
 (
m
RNA
),
GENE
,
HOMEOBOX
.
Exonuclease An enzyme that hydrolyzes (cuts)
only a terminal phosphodiester bond of a
nucleic acid. See also 
HYDROLYZE
.
Exotic Germplasm Germ plasm that has not
been adapted (selectively bred) to the envi-
ronment intended (for its offspring, via
selective breeding by man). See also 
GERM
PLASM
,
INTROGRESSION
,
HYBRIDIZATION
  (
PLANT
GENETICS
).
Exotoxin Proteins (toxins) produced by cer-
tain bacteria that are released by the bacteria
into their surroundings (growth medium).
Produced by primarily Gram-positive bacte-
ria. Diphtheria toxin was the first one dis-
covered. Other exotoxins cause botulism,
tetanus, gas gangrene, and scarlet fever. Exo-
toxins are generally more potent and specific
© 2002 by CRC Press LLC

E
in their actions than endotoxins. See also
ENDOTOXIN
,
TOXIN
,
GRAM
-
POSITIVE
 (
G
+
).
Expected Progeny Differences (EPD)
Numerical rankings of (livestock) parental
genetics, in terms of an animal’s genetic
impact on progeny’s four following com-
mercial traits:
1. Number of progeny born alive
2. Weight of progeny at weaning age
3. Number of days required to reach
slaughter weight, when fed adequately
4. Carcass lean meat vs. fat percentages
EPDs allow a farmer to estimate differences
in performance of future offspring (of a
given parent) vs. offspring produced by par-
ents of average genetic value. For example,
a boar (male pig) possessing an EPD of –4
for “number of days required to reach
slaughter weight” produces offspring that
reach slaughter weight in four fewer days (of
feeding time) than offspring that are sired by
a boar possessing an EPD of 0. See also
GENETICS
,
TRAIT
,
PHENOTYPE
,
GENOTYPE
,
BEST
LINEAR UNBIASED PREDICTION
 (
BLUP
).
“Explosion” Method [to introduce foreign
(new) genes into plant cells] A technique for
gene-into-cell introduction in which the gene
(genetic material) is driven into plant cells
by the force of an explosion (vaporization)
of a drop of water (to which the gene and
gold particles have been added). The explo-
sion is caused by application of high-voltage
electricity to the drop of gene-laden water;
the water is then vaporized explosively, driv-
ing the “shot” (gold particles) and genetic
material through the cell membrane. The
plant cell then heals itself (reseals the hole
where the gene entered), incorporates the
new gene into its genetic complement, and
produces whatever product (e.g., a protein)
for which the newly introduced gene codes.
See also 
AGROBACTERIUM TUMEFACIENS
,
CODING
SEQUENCE
,
GENETIC ENGINEERING
,
VECTOR
,
“
SHOTGUN
”
METHOD
,
GENE
,
GENOME
,
RIBOSOMES
.