Biotechnology

Gene Fusion Refers to the technology/meth-
ods utilized to fuse together two or more
genes. When such a “fused gene” is then
inserted into a genome (e.g., the DNA of a
plant), it causes production (in plant’s ribo-
somes) of protein(s) consisting of all or part
of the amino acid sequences (known as the
“domain”) of the two proteins typically
coded for by those two genes. This fusion is
often done in order to put expression of the
second (fused) gene under the control of the
(strong) promoter of the first gene. During
2001, Rajbir Sangwan and colleagues
inserted a fused gene into a potato plant
(Solanum tuberosum), a major source of
plant starch. That fused gene coded for
production of the two proteins 
α-amylase
and glucose isomerase; both are enzymes.
α-amylase catalyzes the conversion of
potato starch into glucose (a sugar), and glu-
cose isomerase catalyzes conversion of glu-
cose to fructose (a more valuable sugar). See
also
GENE
,
GENOME
,
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID
(
DNA
),
GENETIC ENGINEERING
,
RIBOSOMES
,
CODING
SEQUENCE
,
PROTEIN
,
AMINO ACID
,
SEQUENCE
 (
OF
A PROTEIN MOLECULE
),
FUSION PROTEIN
,
EXPRESS
,
PROMOTER
,
ENZYME
,
AMYLASE
,
GLUCOSE
,
ISOMERASE
.
Gene Machine An instrument which, when
fed information on the amino acid sequence
of a protein (usually via a protein
sequencer), will automatically produce poly-
nucleotide gene segments to code for that
protein. See also 
SEQUENCING
 (
OF DNA MOLE-
CULES
),
SYNTHESIZING
  (
OF DNA MOLECULES
),
GENE
,
AMINO ACID
,
PROTEIN
.
Gene Manipulation See
GENETIC ENGINEERING
.
Gene Map See
LINKAGE MAP
,
GENETIC MAP
,
PHYSICAL MAP
 (
OF GENOME
).
Gene Mapping See
SEQUENCING
  (
OF DNA MOL-
ECULES
),
GENETIC MAP
,
LINKAGE MAP
,
PHYSICAL
MAP
 (
OF GENOME
).
Gene Probe See
DNA PROBE
.
Gene Repair (done by man) The “repair” of
a damaged gene (e.g., mutation) or replace-
ment of a given gene,via a process invented
by Eric Kmiec in 1993. The desired DNA
(gene) is added to a cell, along with RNA,
in a paired-group known as a chimeraplast.
The chimeraplast attaches itself to the cell;
DNA at the site of the specific gene (i.e., the
one that is to be changed), and “repairs” it
using its (new) chimeraplast-DNA as a “tem-
plate.” See also 
GENE
,
CHIMERAPLASTY
,
MUTA-
T I O N
,
D E O X Y R I B O N U C L E I C
A C I D
  (
D N A
),
RIBONUCLEIC ACID
 (
RNA
),
CELL
,
TEMPLATE
.
Gene Repair (natural) Refers to the natural
processes via which all cells in an organism
are continually repairing their DNA (which
can be damaged by ultraviolet light, various
chemicals, etc.). In these natural cell (gene
repair) processes, first, an enzyme complex
detects the damaged DNA (e.g., on one of
the two strands of the DNA molecule). Next,
an enzyme cuts out the damaged portion of
the DNA (on that one strand, leaving the
other — good — strand intact). Then a DNA
© 2002 by CRC Press LLC

G
polymerase enzyme enters the gap and syn-
thesizes (manufactures) the new DNA (to
replace the portion that was cut out), using the
intact — good — DNA strand as a template.
Finally, the new DNA is joined to the old
DNA via the help of DNA ligase enzyme.
See also 
CELL
,
ENZYME
,
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC
ACID
  (
DNA
),
DNA POLYMERASE
,
DNA LIGASE
,
TEMPLATE
.
Gene Replacement Therapy See
GENE DELIV-
ERY
.
Gene Silencing The suppression of gene
expression (e.g., of the gene for polygalac-
turonase which causes fruit to ripen) via a
variety of methods (e.g., via chemical genet-
ics, “zinc finger proteins,” sense or antisense
genes, etc.). See also 
GENE
,
EXPRESS
,
GENE
EXPRESSION
,
GENETIC CODE
,
INFORMATIONAL
MOLECULES
,
PROTEIN
,
CHEMICAL GENETICS
,
ZINC
FINGER PROTEINS
,
GENE FUNCTION ANALYSIS
,
COSUPPRESSION
,
ANTISENSE
  (
DNA SEQUENCE
),
TRANSWITCH
®
,
SENSE
,
POLYGALACTURONASE
(
PG
),
GPA
1
.
Gene Splicing The enzymatic attachment (join-
ing) of one gene (or part of a gene) to another;
also removal of introns and splicing of exons
during mRNA synthesis. See also 
SPLICING
,
CENTRAL DOGMA
 (
NEW
),
MESSENGER RNA
 (
m
RNA
),
GENE
,
B LYMPHOCYTES
,
RECOMBINASE
.
Gene Switching See
GENE
,
GENETIC CODE
,
COD-
ING SEQUENCE
,
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID
 (
DNA
),
SEQUENCE
 (
OF A DNA MOLECULE
),
REGULATORY
SEQUENCE
,
TRANSCRIPTION FACTORS
,
CBF
1
,
COLD
HARDENING
,
CESSATION CASSETTE
,
SYSTEMIC
ACQUIRED RESISTANCE
 (
SAR
).
Gene Targeting See
GENETIC TARGETING
,
GENE
SPLICING
,
GENE DELIVERY
,
GENETIC ENGINEERING
.
Gene Technology Office An agency of the
Australian government, established in 1997,
to oversee and regulate all genetic engineer-
ing activities conducted in the country of
Australia. Replaced/superceded by Australia’s
newly formed Interim Office of the Gene
Technology Regulator (IOGTR) in 1999.
See also 
IOGTR
,
GENE TECHNOLOGY REGULATOR
(
GTR
),
GENETIC ENGINEERING
,
RECOMBINANT DNA
ADVISORY COMMITTEE
  (
RAC
),
ZKBS
  (
CENTRAL
COMMITTEE ON BIOLOGICAL SAFETY
),
INDIAN
DEPARTMENT OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
,
COMMISSION
OF BIOMOLECULAR ENGINEERING
.
Gene Technology Regulator (GTR) The reg-
ulatory body of Australia’s government that
is responsible for approvals of new rDNA
products (e.g., new genetically engineered
crops) before they can be introduced into
Australia. GTR replaced Australia’s IOGTR
(Interim Office of the Gene Technology Reg-
ulator) in this role on June 21, 2001. See also
INTERIM OFFICE OF THE GENE TECHNOLOGY REG-
ULATOR
  (
IOGTR
),
GENE TECHNOLOGY OFFICE
,
GENETIC MANIPULATION ADVISORY COMMITTEE
(
GMAC
),
r
DNA
,
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID
  (
DNA
),
GENETIC ENGINEERING
,
RECOMBINANT DNA ADVI-
SORY COMMITTEE
 (
RAC
),
COMMISSION OF BIOMO-
LECULAR ENGINEERING
,
INDIAN DEPARTMENT OF
BIOTECHNOLOGY
.
Gene Therapy See
GENE DELIVERY
.
Gene Transcript See
TRANSCRIPT
.
Generation Time The time required for a pop-
ulation of cells to double. The average time
required for a round of cell division. See also
CELL
,
MITOSIS
.
Genestein See
GENISTEIN
 (
Gen
).
Genetic Code The set of triplet code words in
DNA coding for all of the amino acids. There
are more than 20 different amino acids and
only four bases (adenine, thymine, cytosine,
and guanine). The mRNA code is a triplet
code, that is, each successive “frame” of
three nucleotides (sometimes called a
codon) of the mRNA corresponds to one
amino acid of the protein. This rule of cor-
respondence is the genetic code. The genetic
code consists of 64 entries — the 64 triplets
possible when there are four possible
nucleotides, each of which can be at any of
three places (4 
× 4 × 4 = 64). A triplet code
was required because a doublet code would
have only been able to code for (4 
× 4 = 16)
16 amino acids. A triplet code allows for the
coding of 64 theoretical amino acids. Since
only a little over 20 exist, there is some
redundancy in the system. Hence some cer-
tain amino acids are coded for by two or
three different triplets. See also 
MESSENGER
RNA
  (
m
RNA
),
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID
  (
DNA
),
INFORMATIONAL MOLECULES
.
Genetic Engineering The selective, deliberate
alteration of genes (genetic material) by
man. This term has come to have a very
broad meaning, including the manipulation
© 2002 by CRC Press LLC

G
and alteration of the genetic material (con-
stitution) of an organism in such a way as to
allow it to produce endogenous proteins with
properties different from those of the tradi-
tional (historic/typical), or to produce
entirely different (foreign) proteins alto-
gether. Some other words often applicable
to the same process are gene splicing, gene
manipulation, or recombinant DNA technol-
ogy (techniques). See also 
GENE
,
INFORMA-
TIONAL MOLECULES
,
CHROMOSOMES
,
GENE
AMPLIFICATION
,
VECTOR
,
PLASMID
,
AGROBACTE-
RIUM TUMEFACIENS
,
GENE SPLICING
,
DEOXYRIBO-
NUCLEIC ACID
  (
DNA
),
TRANSGENIC
  (
ORGANISM
),
BIOLISTIC R GENE GUN
,
WHISKER
™
, “
SHOTGUN
”
METHOD
,
NUCLEAR TRANSFER
,
GMO
,
RECOMBINANT
DNA
  (
r
DNA
),
RECOMBINATION
,
HETEROKARYON
,
HEREDITY
,
MESSENGER RNA
  (
m
RNA
),
HETERODU-
PLEX
,
POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE SELECTION
  (
PNS
),
POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION
 (
PCR
)
TECHNIQUE
,
BIOTECHNOLOGY
,
METABOLIC ENGINEERING
.
Genetic Engineering Approval Committee
See
GEAC
.
Genetic Event See
EVENT
.
Genetic Linkage See
LINKAGE
,
LINKAGE GROUP
.
Genetic Manipulation See
GENETIC ENGINEERING
.
Genetic Manipulation Advisory Committee
(GMAC) A body that advises the Austra-
lian government on matters pertaining to
genetic engineering (e.g., new rDNA prod-
uct approvals). The GMAC is analogous to
Germany’s ZKBS (Central Commission on
Biological Safety), Brazil’s CTNBio
(National Technical Biosafety Commission),
and the Kenya Biosafety Council. See also
GMAC
,
ZKBS
 (
CENTRAL COMMISSION ON BIOLOG-
ICAL SAFETY
),
RECOMBINANT DNA ADVISORY
COMMITTEE
 (
RAC
),
GENETIC ENGINEERING
,
r
DNA
,
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID
 (
DNA
),
CTNB
io
,
KENYA
BIOSAFETY COUNCIL
,
GENE TECHNOLOGY OFFICE
,
GENE TECHNOLOGY REGULATOR
 (
GTR
).
Genetic Map A diagram showing the relative
sequence and position of specific genes
along a chromosome (DNA) molecule.
Markers utilized as “signposts”/guideposts
in such maps include single-nucleotide poly-
morphisms (SNPs), restriction sites (i.e., the
specific locations where each restriction
endonuclease “cuts” a DNA strand), and
microsatellites. Such markers located in or
close to the gene of interest (e.g., a disease-
causing gene within a chromosome) to a
researcher are more likely to be inherited
along with that gene. See also 
POSITION
EFFECT
,
GENE
,
GENOME
,
CHROMOSOMES
,
DEOXY-
RIBONUCLEIC ACID
  (
DNA
),
PHYSICAL MAP
  (
OF
GENOME
),
SINGLE
-
NUCLEOTIDE POLYMORPHISMS
(
SNP
s
),
RESTRICTION SITE
,
MICROSATELLITE DNA
,
MARKER ASSISTED SELECTION
.
Genetic Marker See
MARKER
 (
GENETIC MARKER
).
Genetic Probe See
DNA PROBE
.
Genetic Targeting The insertion of antisense
DNA molecules in vivo into selected cells of
the body in order to block the activity of
undesirable genes. These genes might
include oncogenes, or genes crucial to the
life cycle of parasites such as trypanosomes
(which cause sleeping sickness). See also
ANTISENSE
 (
DNA SEQUENCE
),
GENE
,
GENE DELIV-
ERY
,
ONCOGENES
,
DENDRIMERS
.
Genetic Use Restriction Technologies
(GURTs) A general term refering to several
different technologies intended to control the
expression (or nonexpression) of the gene(s)
for specific (e.g., valuable) traits. See also
CESSATION CASSETTE
,
GENE
,
TRAIT
,
EXPRESS
,
VALUE
-
ENHANCED GRAINS
.
Genetically Engineered Microbial Pesticides
(GEMP) One or more microbes that have
been genetically engineered to be effective
in combatting pest(s) that attack crops or
livestock. For example, a microbe that nat-
urally attacks a crop pest could be geneti-
cally engineered to make the microbe more
potent, or more durable in field environ-
ments when applied via selected method of
microbe application. See also 
MICROBE
,
GENETIC ENGINEERING
,
WHEAT TAKE
-
ALL DISEASE
,
BACULOVIRUS
,
BACILLUS THURINGIENSIS
  (
B
.
t
.),
FEDERAL INSECTICIDE FUNGICIDE AND RODENTI-
CIDE ACT
  (
FIFRA
),
TOXIC SUBSTANCES CONTROL
ACT
 (
TSCA
).
Genetically Engineered Organism (GEO)
See
GEO
.
Genetically Manipulated Organism (GMO)
See
GMO
.
Genetically Modified Microorganism
(GMM) See
GMM
.
Genetically Modified Organism (GMO)
See
GMO
.
© 2002 by CRC Press LLC

G
Genetically Modified Pest Protected (GMPP)
Plants Plants that have been genetically engi-
neered so they resist (or are more tolerant to)
attacks by pests (e.g., insects). See also
GENETIC ENGINEERING
,
BACILLUS THURINGIENSIS
(
B
.
t
.),
COWPEA TRYPSIN INHIBITOR
  (
C
p
TI
),
CRY
PROTEINS
,
CRY
1
A
 (b)
PROTEIN
,
CRY
1
A
(c)
PROTEIN
,
CRY
9
C PROTEIN
,
B
.
t
.
KURSTAKI
,
B
.
t
.
TENEBRIONIS
,
B
.
t
.
ISRAELENSIS
,
PATHOGENESIS RELATED PRO-
TEINS
,
PHOTORHABDUS LUMINESCENS
.
Genetics The branch of biology concerned
with heredity, it was literally invented by
Gregor Mendel in the 19th century. It is a
study of the manner in which genes operate
and are transmitted from parents to off-
spring. In 1865, Mendel defined what gene
(alleles) are, and that they can be dominant
or recessive (within the offspring’s
genome/DNA, which has two “copies” of
each gene). For example, if a given trait (e.g.,
black hair) is dominant, and that gene is
inherited from only one of the parents (e.g.,
the father), the offspring will have that trait
(black hair). But if a given trait (e.g., red
hair) is recessive, the offspring will not have
that trait unless the “red hair gene” is inher-
ited from both parents. Genetics also
involves the study of the mechanism of gene
action — the manner in which the genetic
material (DNA) affects physiological reac-
tions within the cell. See also 
GENE
,
DEOXY-
RIBONUCLEIC ACID
 (
DNA
),
HYBRIDIZATION
 (
PLANT
GENETICS
),
HEREDITY
,
DOMINANT ALLELE
,
RECES-
SIVE ALLELE
,
CELL
,
GENE EXPRESSION ANALYIS
.
Genistein (Gen) One of several phytochemi-
cals produced by the soybean plant as a
defense against certain plant diseases; and
to signal Rhizobium japonicum bacteria to
produce nitrogen for the soybean plant via
colonization of its roots, followed by nitro-
gen fixation from the air. Genistein can also
be produced as a by-product of mycobac-
terium fermentation (the process used to
produce commercial amounts of certain
antibiotics).
Genistein is an isoflavone, a steroid-like
compound that can be lethal to certain ani-
mal cells via its kinase-inhibiting properties.
Genistein fights cancer (tumor cells) by
inhibiting protein tyrosine kinase and topoi-
somerase II. Genistein also exhibits the
property of antiangiogenesis (i.e., inhibition
of tumor growth via prevention of the for-
mation/development of new blood vessels in
tumors). Attached to a pharmaceutical “guided
missile” such as a monoclonal antibody or
the CD4 protein, genistein is potentially use-
ful for treatment against some tumors and
has been investigated as a possible treatment
against B-cell precursor leukemia. A human
diet containing a large amount of genistein
has been shown to increase bone density and
to decrease total serum (blood) cholesterol,
thereby lowering risk of osteoporosis and
coronary heart disease. Research also indi-
cates that human consumption of genistein
can help to prevent breast cancer, prevent
adverse increases in blood platelet aggrega-
tion, and inhibit the proliferation of smooth-
muscle cells in plaque deposits (inside blood
vessels). See also 
IMMUNOTOXIN
,
MONOCLONAL
ANTIBODIES
 (
MA
b
),
CD
4
PROTEIN
,
GENETIC ENGI-
NEERING
,
NITROGEN FIXATION
,
NODULATION
,
PHYTOCHEMICALS
,
FUSION PROTEIN
,
FUSION
TOXIN
,
SOLUBLE CD
4
,
ISOFLAVONES
,
SOYBEAN
PLANT
,
RICIN
,
TYROSINE
 (
tyr
),
STEROID
,
CANCER
,
INHIBITION
,
STRESS PROTEINS
, “
MAGIC BULLET
”,
TYROSINE KINASE
,
CORONARY HEART DISEASE
(
CHD
),
CHOLESTEROL
,
OSTEOPOROSIS
,
SELECTIVE
ESTROGEN EFFECT
,
ANTIANGIOGENESIS
,
PROTEIN
TYROSINE KINASE INHIBITOR
,
PLAQUE
.
Genistin The
β-glycoside form (isomer in
which glucose is attached to the molecule at
the 7 position of the A ring) of the isoflavone
known as genistein (aglycone form). See
also
GENISTEIN
 (
Gen
),
ISOFLAVONES
,
ISOMER
.
Genome The entire hereditary material (which
was proven by Oswald Avery in 1944 to be
DNA) in a cell. In addition to the DNA con-
tained in cell nucleus (known as nuclear
DNA), an organism’s cells contain DNA in
other locations within those cells: bacteria
contain some DNA in plasmids; plants con-
tain some DNA in plastids; animals contain
some DNA in mitochondria. An organism’s
nuclear DNA is composed of one or more
chromosomes, depending on the complexity
of the organism. See also 
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC
ACID
  (
DNA
),
CHROMOSOMES
,
PLASTID
,
PLASMID
,
MITOCHONDRIA
,
MITOCHONDRIAL DNA
.
Genomic Sciences An encompassing term uti-
lized to refer to all knowledge of, and
© 2002 by CRC Press LLC

G
attempts to decipher/understand, the structure
and function of the genomes of organisms.
See also 
GENOMICS
,
GENOME
,
STRUCTURAL
GENOMICS
,
FUNCTIONAL GENOMICS
,
GENOTYPE
,
GENE
,
GENETICS
,
GENETIC MAP
,
GENETIC TARGET-
ING
,
GENETIC CODE
,
SEQUENCING
 (
OF DNA MOLE-
C U L E S
) ,
I N F O R M A T I O N A L
M O L E C U L E S
,
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID
 (
DNA
),
GENE AMPLIFICA-
TIONS
,
CODING SEQUENCE
,
CHEMICAL GENETICS
.
Genomics The scientific study of genes and
their role in an organism’s structure, growth,
health, disease, and/or resistance to disease,
etc. For example, how the (approximately)
3,000 genes in a given strain of bacteria, or
the (approximately) 6,000 genes in a given
strain of yeast, contribute to the shape, func-
tion, and the development of those whole
organisms. Some tools/methods utilized in
genomics include:
1. Structural Genomics — The study or
discovery of what particular gene
sequences are present, and where they
are located within an organism’s DNA.
2. Gene Function Analysis — The deter-
mination of which protein is expressed
(i.e., caused to be “manufactured”) by
each gene in an organism’s genome.
Typically, gene function analysis fol-
lows after structural genomics study.
3. Functional Genomics — The study or
discovery of what traits/functions are
conferred to an organism by given gene
sequence(s).
4. Chemical Genetics — Comparison of
two same-species organisms (one of
which has a given gene, or genes, inac-
tivated by a specific chemical or site
mutation).
5. Gene Expression Analysis — Determi-
nation of the product(s) resulting (such
as an enzyme or other critical protein)
when a given gene is “switched on,” by
measuring fluorescence of individual
messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules
(specific to which particular gene is
“switched on” at the time), when that
mRNA hybridizes (with DNA pieces
corresponding to proteins pro-
duced/analyzed, that were attached to
hybridization surface on biochip).
See also 
GENOTYPE
,
GENE
,
GENETIC MAP
,
GENETIC TARGETING
,
GENETICS
,
GENETIC CODE
,
SEQUENCING
  (
OF DNA MOLECULES
),
INFORMA-
TIONAL MOLECULES
,
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID
(
DNA
),
FUNCTIONAL GENOMICS
,
GENE AMPLIFICA-
TION
,
CODING SEQUENCE
,
STRUCTURAL GENOM-
ICS
,
GENOMIC SCIENCES
,
BACTERIA
,
YEAST
,
STRAIN
,
CHEMICAL GENETICS
,
FLUORESCENCE
,
ENZYME
,
PROTEIN
,
MESSENGER RNA
 (
m
RNA
),
BIO-
CHIPS
,
EXPRESS
,
EXPRESSED SEQUENCE TAGS
(
EST
),
HYBRIDIZATION SURFACES
,
GENE EXPRES-
SION
,
GENE EXPRESSION ANALYSIS
,
GENE FUNC-
TION ANALYSIS
.