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1994 Book DidacticsOfMathematicsAsAScien
Law of Nature. And once that belief has been established, there is a powerful
resistance against any suggestion of change and – as Thomas Kuhn has so nicely shown with examples form the history of science – there will be powerful efforts to sweep any observed irregularity under the rug. (von Glasersfeld, 1987, p. 11) What becomes obvious to anyone who has tried to understand why human beings behave as they do is that the lenses through which people see their world are intertwined with the context in which those lenses were created. Bauersfeld commented on this "fundamental relativism." Altogether, the subjective structures of knowledge, therefore, are subjective con- structions functioning as viable models which have been formed through adapta- tions to the resistance of "the world" and through negotiations in social interac- tions. This triadic nature of human knowledge makes impossible an ascription of causes, which would dissect internal from external causations (Seiler, 1984; Seiler & Wannenmacher, 1983). The separation for analytical purposes may be necessary, but is helpful only provided the researcher does not lose sight of the fundamental inseparability. (Bauersfeld, 1988, p. 39) While we are quick to use the word theory in discussing issues in mathematics education, we would be wise to view theory as something other than a monolithic concept rooted in a notion of objectivity defined by a sense of reality. Snow (1983) maintains that theory has many forms, ranging from a set of well-defined propositions as suggested by "traditional" science, to conceptual analyses, even to the inclusion of metaphors that reflect and influence our thinking. Given the nature of our field, it is difficult to imagine that theory in mathematics education is likely to result in a set of interdependent propositions. In fact, we might be wiser to conceptualize theory development as an exercise in revealing the human ingenuity, insight, and compassion of which Feyerabend (1988) speaks. Consistent with the notion that theory in mathematics education is likely to be eclectic is the notion that stories (e.g., anecdotes, case studies) play an integral role in communicating what we learn from research. From this per- spective of science, research is more akin to understanding the transforma- tion of Van Gogh's beliefs and values as his paintings shifted from bright THOMAS J. COONEY 105 sunflowers to tortured landscapes, to understanding Goethe's motivation and needs as revealed in Eissler's insightful analysis of his psyche, to appreciat- ing Janos Bolyai's mental state following his rebuff by Gauss and his ulti- mate rejection of mathematics as a field of inquiry than it is to describe and predict behavior through quantified generalizations. From such a perspec- tive of science, the central issue of research on the teaching of mathematics and on teacher education becomes one of describing how teachers ascribe meaning to their lives in the classroom and how that meaning contributes to the selection of some teaching behaviors and the rejection of others. This is not to say that quantification does not play a role in coming to understand how teachers construct meaning. Indeed, the most enlightening research of- ten consists of thick descriptions punctuated by statistical data. Lortie's (1975) classic study the School Teacher represents such a blending of quali- tative and quantitative data that foreshadowed the blending of methodolo- gies used in many of the case studies being conducted today. Nevertheless, the issues raised here do encourage us to consider that the notion of being scientific and developing theory may be much more problematic than it might at first appear to be. 3. WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED ABOUT TEACHING AND TEACHER EDUCATION Teaching and teacher education are inherently practical matters, which is not to say that both cannot be improved through the practice of science, broadly interpreted. Consider, for example, a project conducted at the University of Wisconsin, called Cognitively-Guided Instruction (CGI), which has a teacher education component based on a research program that focuses on students' higher-order thinking skills. This project has generated an extensive body of research findings on young children's higher-order thinking skills, which have, in turn, been used as a basis for conducting in- service programs for 1st- and 2nd-grade teachers. Although the nature of the teacher education experience is not entirely clear, teachers were better able to adapt instruction to meet students' cognitive needs when given explicit information about how children learn mathematics (Peterson, 1988). With respect to research in teacher education per se, Weiss, Boyd, and Hessling (1990) surveyed final reports from in-service projects to the National Science Foundation and interviewed project directors and found that in-service programs help teachers develop a richer knowledge base for teaching, which, in turn, seemed to promote a more open-ended teaching style. This was particularly true for teachers from largely minority or urban schools. The mostly anecdotal evidence indicates that teachers who partici- pated in in-service programs were less likely to see the textbook as the sole determinant of the instructional program. Further, the teachers developed an increased sense of professionalism and became influential partners for other teachers in their schools and school districts. There is not much analysis of 106 SCIENCE AND TEACHER EDUCATION why these changes occur except that they seem related to the teachers' per- ceptions of themselves as professionals rather than any particular format for the in-service programs. One of the intriguing notions embedded in teacher education programs is the relationship between teachers' knowledge of mathematics and their abil- ity to teach mathematics. It is difficult to imagine a reasonable argument that a sound knowledge of mathematics is not related to developing a qual- ity instructional program, albeit the documentation of this relationship re- mains elusive. (see Begle, 1968; Eisenberg, 1977). There is no shortage of evidence (e.g., Fisher, 1988; Graeber, Tirosh, & Glover, 1986; Mayberry, 1983; Wheeler & Feghali, 1983) that many elementary teachers lack the mathematical sophistication necessary to promote the kind of reform being called for by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM, 1989, 1991). While the documentation that elementary teachers lack an un- derstanding of topics such as ratio and proportion, geometry, measurement, and number relationships is not unusual, it begs the question of how this lack of understanding influences instruction or inhibits reform. Although there is little evidence about the relationship of elementary teachers' knowl- edge of mathematics to the way mathematics is taught, such information seems critical to considering the means by which the problem can be ad- dressed in teacher education programs. There can be little doubt that teacher education programs can increase a teachers' knowledge of mathematics. But, if the means of achieving this goal is inconsistent with the instructional process deemed necessary to impact on children, then what have we gained? Too often the medium belies the message as we try to "give" teachers math- ematics, failing to realize that the teacher receives two messages: knowl- edge gained and the means by which it was gained. If teachers are asked to learn mathematics through a process of transmission, then there is an in- creased probability that they will come to believe that their students will also learn through the transmission process – a position counter to meaning- ful reform. At the secondary level, there is virtually no research on the relationship between a teachers' knowledge of mathematics, other than the coarse method of defining one's knowledge of mathematics in terms of courses taken, and the teaching of mathematics. Indeed, it is highly doubtful that any meaningful statistical relationship will emerge between any reasonable measure of teachers' knowledge and the nature of instruction. There is evi- dence, however, that what a teacher thinks about mathematics is related to the way mathematics is taught. Hersh put it the following way: One's conception of what mathematics is affects one's conception of how it should be presented. One's manner of presenting it is an indication of what one believes to be most essential in it . . . . The issue, then, is not, What is the best way to teach? but What is mathematics really all about? (Hersh, 1986, p. 13) THOMAS J. COONEY 107 A series of studies conducted at the University of Georgia by Thompson (1982), McGalliard (1983), Brown (1985), Kesler (1985), Henderson (1988), and Jones (1990) reveals that many teachers communicate a limited view of mathematics. Although it is not clear whether the teachers held a limited view of mathematics or whether the ethos of the classroom encour- aged the communication of a limited view, the question seems moot when you consider the effect on students. Too, the issue is not just the mathemat- ics that is taught, but the mathematics that is assessed. Cooney (1992) con- ducted a survey of 201 middle school and secondary school mathematics teachers' evaluation practices in which the teachers were asked to create an item that assessed a minimal understanding of mathematics and an item that assessed a deep and thorough understanding of mathematics. More than one-half (57%) of the teachers created computational items in response to a question about assessing a deep and thorough understanding of mathemat- ics. The following items were typical of such responses: 1. 2. Solve for x: 6x-2(x + 3)= x - 10 3. How much carpet would it take to cover a floor that is 12.5 ft by 16.2 ft? These teachers conflated the notion of difficulty with the notion of assessing a deep and thorough understanding of mathematics. Teachers of below-average students were particularly likely to give computational items to assess what they considered a deep and thorough understanding of mathematics. Again, we can only conjecture whether this circumstance reflected the teachers' limited view of mathematics, or whether the conditions in the classroom mandated the use of computational items given the oft asked question by students, "Will this be on the next test?" Studies by Helms (1989), Owens (1987), and Wilson (1991) suggest that beliefs about mathematics and the teaching of mathematics are rooted in ex- periences long before the teachers encounter formal training in mathematics education. Further, these beliefs do not change dramatically without signifi- cant intervention (Ball, 1988; Bush, 1983). Lappan et al. (1988) addressed the issue of changing teachers' style of teaching through an extensive in-ser- vice program. They found that a 2-week summer workshop was sufficient for the teachers' to learn the information presented, but clearly insufficient for them to transform that knowledge into viable teaching strategies. They concluded that this complex issue of transformation requires a sustained in- service program of at least 2 years duration in which teachers are provided not only technical assistance in using the project's materials but also intel- lectual and emotional support as well. When growth was exhibited, it seemed to involve the increased confidence that the teachers gained in dealing with more exploratory teaching situations. Over a decade ago, Bauersfeld (1980) argued that teaching and teacher education are inherently social matters and, consequently, that change in the 108 SCIENCE AND TEACHER EDUCATION teaching of mathematics can only occur through the reflective act of con- ceptualizing and reconceptualizing teaching. In short, our beliefs about teaching are shaped by social situations and therefore can only be reshaped by social situations. Attending to this circumstance in a teacher education program involves far more than providing field experiences – the typical solution. It involves analysis and reflection, a coming to realize that learning – both the teachers' and the students' – is a function of context This is not to say that the professional development of teachers is somehow based on generic notions about teaching and learning. Indeed, our ability to be reflective is necessarily rooted in what we understand about mathematics, psychology, and pedagogy. Wittmann (1992) has argued that the formalism of mathematics itself en- courages a broadcast metaphor of teaching in which the primary task of the teacher is to make the lectures clear and connected so that the student can absorb an appreciation and understanding of mathematical structure. A few years ago, I interviewed a mathematician who emphasized mathematical structure in his classes and maintained that his lectures could help students see mathematics come alive. Although he appreciated the formalistic nature of mathematics, he failed to realize the incongruity that exists in trying to make something come alive through a passive medium such as broadcasting information. One could argue that the question of what constitutes mathe- matics and where it resides (in the mind or on the paper) is largely philo- sophical. I maintain that, in terms of the teaching of mathematics, the real issue is what teachers believe about mathematics and how they envision their role as teachers of mathematics. Indeed, the "philosophical" debate plays itself out every day in classrooms around the world as teachers struggle to help kids learn mathematics. This suggests that considerable attention needs to be given to how beliefs are formed and how effective interventions can be created to help break the cycle of teaching by telling. Somehow, as a profession, we seemed to lose sight of the importance of meaning that highlighted the work of such people as Brownell (1945) when we accepted the premise that science, narrowly defined, could reveal effec- tive ways of teaching mathematics. More recently, we are again emphasiz- ing meaning in research, particularly that involving classroom situations (see, e.g., Yackel, Cobb, Wood, Wheatley, & Merkel, 1990). Despite this apparent maturity in our profession and the fact that we seem to be asking questions that strike at the heart of what it means to teach and to learn math- ematics, progress in teacher education is much less apparent. Nevertheless, we have at least come to realize that teachers are not tabula rasa, that a knowledge of mathematics alone is not sufficient to insure change in the classroom, and that change evolves over time. THOMAS J. COONEY 109 SCIENCE AND TEACHER EDUCATION 4. THE NOTION OF AUTHORITY An issue of importance to almost all beginning teachers, especially at the secondary level, and to many experienced teachers as well, is that of class- room management. While the authority of a teacher is a legitimate concern, there is, unfortunately, a certain conflation between interpreting teachers' authority as the responsibility for the physical well-being of students and as the legitimizing agent for the mathematics being taught. A teacher who en- courages students to think creatively and who promotes a problem-oriented approach to the teaching of mathematics will encounter, by definition, a greater number of unpredictable moments in the classroom – thereby mak- ing the use of open-ended teaching methods somewhat risky. The difficulty is that when a teacher's authority is translated into defining the quality of mathematical thinking, the students' goals become defined in terms of social outcomes rather than cognitive ones (Bauersfeld, 1980; Cobb, 1986). In many classrooms, the teacher plays a dual role for students: the authority figure and the determiner of mathematical truth. This creates a certain blur- ring between social goals and mathematical goals; the better student is per- ceived as the one who produces answers the teacher desires. Scholars such as Rokeach (1960) and Perry (1970) have addressed the role of authority as one defines his or her relationship to the world. Although differences exist, both take the position that when authority is de- fined external to the individual, a dogmatic state exists. This state accentu- ates the development of what Green (1971) calls nonevidentually held be- liefs, that is, beliefs immune from rational criticism. The differences be- tween nonevidentually and evidentually held beliefs and between dogma- tism and rationality emphasize the distinction between indoctrination and teaching. Fundamentally, the issue is one of how a person comes to know something. In this sense, there is a certain inseparability between the math- ematics that is taught and the means by which it is taught. This inseparabil- ity is often lost in our zeal to "train" or to "give" teachers whatever we deem their "deficiency" to be. It is a common trap for all teacher educators, as we fail to see the symmetry between what and how we teach teachers and what and how they teach their students. In a recent methods course, we were doing an experiment in which we collected data, analyzed the data, generated an appropriate function to model the situation, and subsequently discussed the implication of this ac- tivity for teaching. At one point, a very enthusiastic preservice teacher pro- claimed with both confidence and a sense of satisfaction, "I finally know the right way to teach mathematics!" It was a moment of both triumph and de- feat. Triumph because she conveyed a sense of exuberance and understand- ing the function that modeled the data; defeat because she missed the more general point that the teaching of mathematics is problematic and cannot be reduced to any predetermined "right" way. 110 Our challenge as teacher educators is to create contexts in which teachers, at all levels of professional development, can envision teaching methods that reflect reasoning, problem-solving, communicating mathematics, and connecting mathematics to the real world (NCTM, 1989, 1991) and yet feel comfortable with their role as classroom managers. Given that some teach- ers expect a teacher education program to give them the "right way to teach," we face the difficult task of helping teachers realize the problematic nature of both mathematics and the teaching of mathematics, and that re- liance on external authority encourages a passive view of teaching and learning that fails to honor the student's role in determining the validity of mathematical outcomes. 5. THE NOTION OF ADAPTATION The notion of adaptation provides a means by which we can break the cycle of teaching by telling that permeates many classrooms. Von Glasersfeld's (1989) identification of the following two principles of constructivism: (a) Knowledge is not passively received but actively built up by the cognizing subject, and (b) the function of cognition is adaptive and serves the organi- zation of the experiential world, not the discovery of ontological reality, fo- cuses our attention on the importance of context in the creation of knowl- edge. Von Glasersfeld's second principle, in particular, emphasizes the im- portance of context as individuals create their knowledge about either math- ematics or the teaching of mathematics. As Kuhn (1970) has so persuasively argued, knowledge structures are necessarily contextual. The implication of this for teacher education is that acquiring new methods of teaching mathe- matics is necessarily and fundamentally connected to our conception of what it means to teach mathematics and what it is that we think mathematics is. For the preservice teacher, this may be the result of accumulated experiences as a student of mathematics; for the in-service teacher, conceptions are more likely rooted in what worked yesterday. If we believe that teacher education should be an exercise in learning to be adaptive, then we can envision different kinds of teacher education pro- grams than are typically the case. While the content of such programs may not differ, what does differ is the means by which this content is acquired. If we take seriously the notion that the way we learn is a significant factor in how we eventually teach, then we have the laid the groundwork for teachers becoming adaptive agents in the classroom. The shift being called for em- phasizes the notion of "pedagogical power", as compared to "mathematical power" that is emphasized throughout the NCTM Standards. The notion of problem-solving involves identifying the conditions and constraints of a problem and subsequently considering ways of solving the problem. Pedagogical power also involves recognizing conditions and constraints (of a classroom situation), weighing the consequences of possible actions, and then deciding which course of action best addresses the situation in a par- THOMAS J. COONEY 111 6. CONCLUSION Despite the fact that research is sometimes perceived by practitioners as be- ing disjointed from the practice of schooling, it is often the case that re- search mirrors practice. This is particularly so for much of the research on teaching and teacher education. While such research may help us better un- derstand some events, the strategy is inherently conservative. It tends to make practice better as we presently conceive it. On the other hand, if we think about the notion of being scientific as one of understanding how it is that teachers come to believe and behave as they do, then we have posi- tioned ourselves for creating contexts in which teachers can consider the consequences of their teaching. From this perspective, we can encourage the teacher to become scientific in the sense that they, too, can engage in the process of understanding why their students behave as they do. This orienta- tion casts the teacher as an adaptive agent, that is, as one who sees his or her task as one of adapting instruction to be consistent with their students' think- ing and to enable students to provide their own rationale as to why certain mathematical generalizations are true or not. That is, the teacher plays the role of being the intellectual leader rather than the determiner of mathemati- cal truth. Currently, I am directing a project designed to help teachers develop and use alternate items and techniques in assessing their students' understanding of mathematics. One of the teachers provided the following analysis as she compared her former test questions with the current ones. Interestingly, this change was affecting her teaching as well. She felt that she had "a responsibility to train the students to use these items in class so that they would be prepared for the tests." Hence, her teaching became punctuated with asking students to explain why something was or was not the case, to create examples to satisfy certain conditions, and to explore dif- 112 SCIENCE AND TEACHER EDUCATION ticular classroom. Unlike solving a mathematical problem, however, peda- gogical problem-solving results in a dynamic state – a process of searching for better classrooms. Cooney (in press) has identified a number of activities that can move teachers along the continuum of reflection and adaptation. Suffice it to say here that any teacher education program interested in reflection and adapta- tion must begin with what teachers bring to the program and consider the means by which teachers can restructure what it is that they believe about mathematics and its teaching. This is not to diminish the importance of knowing mathematics, knowing how students learn, and being able to create different mathematical activities for students. It is, however, the orientation toward that knowledge that is of utmost importance. Further, it is unlikely that this orientation will be realized unless it is fostered and encouraged throughout the teacher education program. THOMAS J. COONEY 113 ferent ways of solving problems. What a marvelous testimony to a teacher becoming an adaptive agent using assessment as the vehicle for change. Argue as we might about how the students' responses could have been categorized, what is indisputable is that the teacher had to make judgments about the quality of students' thinking. This is a far cry from judging the correctness of computational items as was typically the case in the survey cited earlier (Cooney, 1992). What we need are descriptions, stories, about what influences teachers, how they can become adaptive agents, and what forms of teacher education facilitate an adaptive orientation toward teaching. As part of a research and development project, we have been conducting case studies about how pre- service secondary teachers have interacted with materials on mathematical functions. Wilson (1991) has found, for example, that it is easier to impact on teachers' knowledge and beliefs about mathematics than it is to influence their knowledge and beliefs about the teaching of mathematics. We need a Another project teacher provided the following analysis with respect to the question: Is it possible for an equilateral triangle to have a right angle? If so, give an example. If not, why not? Download 5.72 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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