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1994 Book DidacticsOfMathematicsAsAScien
tion in learning and teaching algebra. IDM Occasional Paper 117. Bielefeld: Universität
Bielefeld. Talysina, N. F. (1969). Teoreticeskie problemy programmirovannogo obucenija [Theoretical problems of programmed teaching], Moskva: Izd. Moskovskogo univer- siteta. Talysina, N. F. (1975). Upravlenie processom usvoenija znanij [Guiding the process of knowledge acquisition]. Moskva: Izd. Moskovskogo universiteta. Talysina, N. F. (1988). Formirovanie poznavatelnoj dejatelnosti mladsich skolnikov [Training the cognitive ability of younger students], Moskva: Prosvescenie. Van Oers, B. (1990). The development of mathematical thinking in school: A comparison of the action-psychological and information-processing approaches. International Journal of Educational Research, 14(1), 51-66. Vygotsky, L. S. (1964). Denken und Sprechen. Berlin: Akademie-Verlag. Vygotsky, L. (1985/1987). Ausgewählte Schriften (Vols. 1-2). Berlin: Volk und Wissen. Wertsch, J. V. (Ed.). (1985). Vygotsky and the social formation of mind. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Wertsch, J. V. (Ed.). (1985). Culture, communication and cognition: Vygotskyan perspec- tives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Zaporozec, A. V. (1990). Entstehung und Aufbau der Motorik. Eine tätigkeitspsychologis- che Studie. Berlin: Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften. 276 ACTION-THEORETIC AND PHENOMENOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO RESEARCH IN MATHEMATICS EDUCATION: STUDIES OF CONTINUALLY DEVELOPING EXPERTS Richard Lesh and Anthony E. Kelly Princeton / New Brunswick 1. ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT STUDENTS' THINKING We begin with the assumption that students actively construct meaning. They are not tabula rasa upon which teachers "write" knowledge. Each stu- dent makes sense of the world in terms of the understandings of the world that he or she brings to it. These understandings or models of the world are constantly being revised, and are never in a final state. Thus, we are in gen- eral accord with the precepts of what has become known as constructivism. 2. MODELS We do, however, pay particular attention to models. By a model we mean a structural metaphor or a pattern that provides thinkers with the ability to describe, predict, and control the behavior of complex systems. A model allows them to make informed decisions on the basis of a subset of the total available cues. It allows them to "filter" information intelligently, to suggest information that may fill in "holes" in their understanding of a task, and to recognize superfluous information. Models may contain, but are not limited to, facts and procedural rules. Rather, they serve to organize facts and rules into systems for understanding and for action. Models tend to be multidi- mensional and unstable. Consequently, they are often revised or restructured depending on the conditions and purposes that exist in a given situation. 2.1 The Characteristics of Models and How They Develop When we study children and teachers, we find that both groups propose models that are tested, rejected, revised, or revisited, all without any clear notion of exactly what an expert response might look like for a given problem. How is it that people perceive the need to develop beyond the constraints of their own current conceptualizations of their experiences? How is it that they so often develop in directions that are generally better R. Biehler, R. W. Scholz, R. Sträßer, B. Winkelmann (Eds.), Didactics of Mathematics as a Scientific Discipline, 277-286. © 1994 Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands. without a preconceived notion of best? How do models evolve? We will illustrate this process with three examples: (a) a study of teachers tutoring students; (b) a study of teachers designing authentic assessment tasks; and (c) a study of teachers designing scoring rubrics for authentic assessment tasks. 2.2 Evolution The models that underlie the interpretation phases of mathematical problem- solving evolve in a manner similar to how other types of organisms or sys- tems evolve. We invite the reader to indulge our use of this analogy, be- cause we feel that the perspective that it provides is more important than whether the correspondence is tight and "correct" at every single juncture. The processes that students and teachers engage in can be described as in- volving generation and mutation, selection, adaptation, reorganization, dif- ferentiation, and accumulation. 2.3 Generation and Mutation In the tutoring study (Lesh & Kelly, 1991), for example, students proposed a variety of different ways to think about a problem. In the early stages, they suggested several models based on additive relationships, subtractive rela- tionships, fractions, or proportions. These models were expressed in a vari- ety of different ways: as numbers, as verbal arguments, as graphs, as sketches, and so forth. As the students explored a relationship through a given representation, they oftentimes pursued features of the representation that, in turn, suggested the pursuit of an alternative relationship. In this way, the models were dynamic, unstable, and subject to mutation. In the same study, teachers began by suggesting several ways to improve tutoring for a given problem: revising the problem statement, focusing on the required procedural skills, focusing on the mathematical structure, fo- cusing on the student's affective response, or focusing on the student's mathematical response. Each of these generations is, of course, intimately connected to the others. As teachers explored one of them, their thinking often mutated in ways parallel to the students'. For example, revisions of the problem statement often led to discussions about skills and their importance; the idea of importance would sometimes lead to questions of how students responded to the problems affectively; and so on. In the problem-design study (Lesh, Hoover, & Kelly, 1993), teachers be- gan by collecting a wide variety of stimuli for context-setting for mathemat- ical problems: state lotteries, stock reports, housing costs, political cartoons, recipes, even bungee-jumping. They also attempted to design into the tasks a wide number of implicit demands on students to generate models for addition, subtraction, fractions, graphing, or logical argument. Mutation was seen for these suggestions, for example, in scenarios about stock reports, which raised questions about students' prior knowledge; or problems 278 ACTION THEORY AND PHENOMENOLOGY involving graphs were queried as to which procedures were being assessed and their importance. In the assessment-design study, teachers were able to suggest a variety of ways of evaluating a student's solution: length of answer, "density" of an- swer, presence or absence of numbers, accuracy of calculations, structure of the argument, or its effectiveness as a communication. Discussions of each of these generations again would lead to a proliferation of variants on themes: How important was length of answer if the calculations were inac- curate? How important was the accuracy of a calculation if it did not have supporting representations (e.g., graphs) that made its reasoning clearer? The models in each of the above situations were presented as tentative, unstable, temporary, and "fuzzy." The expectation was that some might flourish and others perish. The driving force for mutation appears to be an attempt to address at each modeling cycle what are seen as the complexities of the task demand. As the solution models become more mature, complexi- ties, which are first seen as independent and disjointed, are later subsumed into or seen as irrelevant to the solution of the problem. 2.4 Selection Not all models survive all task/student/environmental demands. Several mechanisms appeared to be involved in selection: (a) trial by consistency – that is, teachers and students asked themselves whether each new idea "made sense" based on their own current conceptions and experiences; (b) Download 5.72 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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