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1994 Book DidacticsOfMathematicsAsAScien
Didactics of Mathematics as a Scientific Discipline, 443-455.
© 1994 Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands. UBIRATAN D'AMBROSIO the mind should be separate from the body, and that nature is to be subdued, just as feelings are to be suppressed. (Gore, 1993, p. 230) This obviously has much to do with our teaching of mathematics. On the other hand, we are under pressure from educational authorities, community leaders, parents, and students themselves to get “better results," to improve our marks, to be better in our marksmanship. Our tests are showing decay! But, on the other hand, a progressive sector of society reveals their contempt for this kind of testing, as Harvard scholar Robert B. Reich says: "standard- ised tests remained, as before, a highly accurate method for measuring little more than the ability of children to take standardised tests" (Reich, 1992, p. 226). What should make us, mathematics educators, concerned is the fact that these remarks come from probably the second and third most influential individuals in the recently inaugurated government of nothing less than the United States of America. They are clearly talking about us. Should we be like ostriches, plunge our heads in the sand and believe that in this way the critics will ignore us? Or might we be humble and follow the suggestion of one of the leading thinkers of our times, Norbert Wiener, and apply to us what he was suggesting to the labor classes frightened by the menace of robotics: "the labour unions and the labour movement are in the hands of a highly limited personnel... totally unprepared to enter into the larger polit- ical, technical, sociological, and economic questions which concern the very existence of labour" (Wiener, 1948, p. 38). Of course, mathematics educa- tors are far from the image Wiener had of trade union leaders, so an invita- tion for us to look into the very existence of mathematics and of education is absolutely adequate. Since the end of World War II, countries have been investing massively in mathematics, science, and technology education as the most efficient and necessary way to progress and to secure peace. Only in the USA, govern- ment spending in advancing, not running, these and related areas is close to 5 billion dollars annually, which puts overall national spending in the order of hundreds of billions. The creation of UNESCO, a landmark of hope for countries freed from colonial rule, pointed with enormous emphasis to the importance of literacy and numeracy for these countries. And the creation of science foundations, of major research institutes, and the development of a powerful scientific-technological industrial complex in the more developed countries revealed the strong belief in the power of these advances. The results have been less than satisfactory, indeed, disappointing. Countries that were poor are even poorer, the gap between rich and poor has increased, industrial development has brought entangled social disorder, peace among nations seems far more remote than 50 years ago, and the level of planetary destruction is getting closer to irreversibility. What has gone wrong? My criticism points to a prevailing narrow view of education, focused mainly in the deterministic paradigm of cause-effect. 444 Education has been dominated by: 1. a practice that emphasizes learning what is taught; 2. a theoretical framework that confounds cognition with learning old knowledge; 3. objectives that favor the world order that has been established gradu- ally since the 16th century, based on conquest, colonialism, and imperial capitalism. The resulting deformation leads to individual achievement. It has reached a point that leads people from the less contemplative strata of society to be satisfied with small advances in lieu of redemption and with rote learning of crystallized knowledge in lieu of invigorating creative powers. The imme- diate goals and emphases that prevail are for the poor to become rich (hence investment and financial institutions), for the weak to become strong (hence spas and bodybuilding handbooks and clubs), for the sad to become happy (hence drugs, alcohol, etc.), for the unhealthy to become healthier (hence drugs, hospitals, etc.), and so on. No one stops for a while to reflect on the true meaning of being poor or rich, of being weak or strong, of being sad or happy, of being unhealthy or healthy, on the very existence and the causes of these dichotomies. What does this have to do with mathematics education? Everything! Mathematics education, and the same goes for science education, has been stressing, through a concept of curriculum focused on objectives, contents, and methods, the advancement of the boundaries of specific knowledge, not the implications of this knowledge. Mathematics and science education em- phasize techniques, formulae, and theories geared toward drills, exam-fo- cused topics, and not aimed at a contextualized understanding of mathemat- ics and science. To bring mathematics and science into context requires a deeper look into the place of education and of mathematics and science in modern societies. In fact, didactics of mathematics as a scientific discipline is essentially this critical thinking about ourselves, about our position in the broad framework of society and about our responsibility in shaping the fu- ture. This is what Hans-Georg Steiner, promoting didactics of mathematics as a discipline throughout his career, has been inviting us to do. This is much more than just improving our day-to-day performance, much more than just providing better suited programs and inventing gimmicks to con- vey our message, much more than designing new testing procedures. Education is a major social and economic enterprise with the general goal that every adult be literate and numerate and possess the knowledge and skills necessary to compete in a global economy and to exercise the rights and responsibilities of citizenship. These very general goals can be achieved only through an educational system available to all children, in which they find quality education in a disciplined environment conducive to learning and free of drugs and violence. CULTURAL FRAMING 445 2. THE TREND TOWARD GLOBALIZATION The appeal for a planetary view of shared responsibility calls for a deep revolution in the educational systems affecting particularly mathematics, science, and technology. It goes far beyond the search for better results, for a more productive and quantitatively more efficient education in these areas. But it is fundamental to achieve another qualitative level of education that will allow us to correct the distortions mentioned above for the generations to come. This calls for much more than fixing goals that will be reflected in good results in testing, the price of which may be an aggravation of dys- functional civilization. It is the search for a new venue for the world, a new and more responsible style of leadership, oriented toward the preservation and indeed the improvement of civilization. The view that mind and body are separate entities, which implies a di- chotomy between the intellectual and the physical world and consequently between humanity and nature, has given origin to abusive utilization of re- sources, to irresponsible consumption habits. A return to a balanced and saner relationship between humanity and nature calls for the perception of an embodied mind as the essence of humanity. This calls for a deep re- thinking of education, mainly education in mathematics, science, and tech- nology as related to education in the arts and the humanities. A closer con- nection must be sought. And the closer the connection, the more intense and noticeable must be the presence of values, moral issues, and the recovery of spiritual life. 2.1 General Goals for Mathematics and Science Education What are the reasons to believe that mathematics and science education can help in achieving major societal goals, hence justifying that we teach mathematics and science to all? I distinguish four main reasons. We teach mathematics and science to all because, through them, individ- uals can be: 1. wiser consumers, in particular, as "users" of science and technology, in such matters as nutrition, health, waste, and so forth; 2. wiser decision makers, or voters on the decision makers, in issues relat- ing to science and technology such as environmental policies and produc- tion, economic and developmental decisions, and security issues; 3. motivated and prepared to change and embrace new careers in their professional life, which increasingly depend on dominance of telecommuni- cations and information science, robotics, and other scientific and techno- logical knowledge and abilities; 4. prepared to take personal decisions based on ethical considerations, such as those related to termination of life, abortion, organ transplants, ge- netic modifications, elimination of species, and so on. It would be a mistake to try to rank these in importance, since it is equally necessary to pursue all of them in order to achieve democracy in our home, UBIRATAN D'AMBROSIO 446 2.2 New Aspects of the Labor Market Certainly, an individual's capability of choosing the activity that best suits his or her interest and personality brings satisfaction in labor relations and consequently in private life, which has a major influence in generating self- esteem, higher productivity, and emotional equilibrium, that, in essence, is internal or interior peace. This has clear effects on the economy, since it affects the quality of production, which is obviously higher if individuals perform their duties with pleasure. Contrary to artisanal production, in which quality is an essential factor, we see an increasing dissociation be- tween the producer and the product. This pattern of work, of routine produc- tion, besides affecting the quality of the product itself, has consequences that may be even worse for the nation as a whole, that could be called a behavioral addiction, with implications for the mental health of the popula- tion. It paves the way to fundamentalism and radical political behavior, a real threat to democracy. This has much to do with mathematics, science, and technology education, since it may be the result of boredom, of the rou- tine of a highly automated production system that reduces the individual to a mere observer of gauges and manipulator of control knobs. The scenarios of Fritz Lang's Metropolis and Charlie Chaplin's Modern Times are present in the modern production system. Of course, this kind of specialized work re- lies very much on training involving science and mathematics and conse- quently requires a broader and more critical view of education in these ar- eas. Creativity must be an important component, more than pure capability to read and obey instructions. Problems are solved and new situations are faced not in the function of learning methods and routines, but aiming at creativity and preparing to face new situations in daily life. Achievement must be sought globally. But regrettably, this goes in the opposite direction of what has been instilled in our intellectual framework by mathematics and science. Mathematics and science are the prototype of individual achieve- ment. To read a gauge involves much mathematics, of course associated with science and closely related to the modern world. It must sound at least ridiculuous to a young girl or boy who normally operates a microwave oven to be asked to solve problems of the type "Momy went to the market to buy two and a half kilos of bananas. The price of one kilo is . . . ." CULTURAL FRAMING 447 which is the entire planet. In fact, the pursuit of all four reasons, which we might state as global aims of education, leads to a global balance of produc- tion and consumption, hence to better labor relations, which are essential to security at home, in the cities, and to national security, in other words, to social peace. But no one will deny that to move away from the current intol- erable discrepancies between rich and poor among our populations at home and among nations worldwide is a major factor in achieving military peace. Making people be satisfied with small advances in lieu of redemption, and with rote learning of crystallized knowledge in lieu of invigorating creative powers, is the result of a completely mistaken view of achievement in schools. Victor Weisskopf once said "schools should give children the opportunity to discover, should give them the joy of finding connections. To discover is more important than to know"(Weisskopf, 1992, p. 3). This may be synthesized as challenging the very values lauded in the philosophy of mathematics – and to a great extent in the philosophy of modern science: precision, exactness, rigor. 3. DIDACTICS OF MATHEMATICS 3.1 The Major Challenge for Didactics of Mathematics Indeed, there is a need for a new dynamics in the classroom. The environ- ment has everything to do with creating the right creative environment. It is clear that, in general, students do not learn because we teach them; the teaching/learning condition is not a cause-effect relation. I believe it is in- teresting to make a comparison of the study of mathematics and the study of music, because I can then use the example of a major contemporary educa- tor, Shinichi Suzuki. He is better known as the introducer of the very suc- cessful method for teaching violin to children. He describes the following conversation with a mother: The mother of one of my students came one day to inquire about her son. This student has good musical sense, practised very well, and was a superior child. "Sensei [Professor], will my boy amount to something?" When the mother asked me like that, I answered laughingly, "No. He will not become something." It seems to be the tendency of modern times for parents to entertain thoughts of this kind. It is an undisguised cold and calculating educational attitude. If I hear things like this, I want to reply in a joking way. But the mother was alarmed and sur- prised by my answer. So I continued, "He will become a noble person through his violin playing. Isn't that good enough? You should stop wanting your child to be- come a professional, just a good money earner . . . . Your son plays violin very well. We must try to make him splendid in mind and heart also." (Suzuki, 1969, p. 26) I ask if there is a possibility of gearing mathematics education to this kind of goal in a society demanding more and more mathematical skills and numer- acy. Is it desirable? Is it acceptable to parents trying to direct children to a professional life? After all, it is accepted by all that only a few violinists are needed, but it is accepted by everyone that our societal goals call for every- one to be noble, splendid in mind and heart. Can these qualities, so explic- itly announced by Professor Suzuki, be helped with mathematics? I strongly believe so! After many years of teaching mathematics so loaded with tech- niques, skills, as if belonging to a universe dichotomic with the arts and the humanities, modern education calls for a mathematics that can help children to grow as individuals who are noble, splendid in mind and heart. A major UBIRATA N D'AMBROSIO 448 challenge facing the discipline of didactics of mathematics today is how to achieve this. Clearly, it is not working with goals such as those listed in section 1 above that we will achieve these ideals. We have to create an environment for learning, we have, as mathematicians, to pay more attention to John Dewey and others from just about every age and every culture in the history of humanity: We learn by doing. No child is said to be talking before he or she talks. No one can call himself or herself a mathematician before proving a theorem. Neither the talk of the child is to repeat words nor the theorem required of the mathematician is to repeat a theorem of another. Otherwise we would have psittacism, which goes against mathematics understood as a creative activity. 3.2 The Ethnomathematics Proposal One response to this appeal is the research program called ethnomathemat- ics. I will not try to define ethnomathematics, since "only that which has no history can be defined" (Nietzsche, 1872/1952, p. 212), and ethnomathemat- ics is identified with the history of our species. Instead, I refer to its etymol- ogy: ethno-mathema-tics. 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