Chemistry and catalysis advances in organometallic chemistry and catalysis
PART III ORGANOMETALLIC POLYMERIZATION CATALYSIS
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- 27.3.1 Rare Earth Borohydride/Magnesium Dialkyl in Stoichiometric Amount
- 27.3.2 Rare Earth Borohydride/Magnesium Dialkyl in Excess (Polymer Chain Transfer Conditions) —Homopolymerization
- 27.3.2.1 Ethylene
- 27.3.2.2 Isoprene
- Scheme 27.3
- 27.3.2.3 Myrcene
- 27.3.2.4 Styrene
PART III
ORGANOMETALLIC POLYMERIZATION CATALYSIS 343 27 COORDINATIVE CHAIN TRANSFER POLYMERIZATION AND COPOLYMERIZATION BY MEANS OF RARE EARTH ORGANOMETALLIC CATALYSTS FOR THE SYNTHESIS OF TAILOR-MADE POLYMERS Marc Visseaux*, Thomas Chenal, and Philippe Zinck ENSCL, Univ Lille Nord de France, Lille, France; USTL, Univ Lille Nord de France, Lille, France; CNRS, Univ Lille Nord de France, Lille, France 27.1 INTRODUCTION Polymerization catalysis has seen a huge development with the progress of organometallic chemistry. Metallocenes, post-metallocenes, and constrained geometry complexes (CGC), as single-site catalysts have been used by polymerists to elaborate new polymeric materials with improved properties [1]. Since the beginning of the twenty-first century, in addition to the search for new organometallic architectures that could be exploited as potential catalysts, polymerists have developed new methods and concepts, aiming at better controlling polymerization catalysis. Living (up to immortal) polymerization [2], chain walking [3], and chain shuttling [4] have emerged. Mastering transfer reactions in polymerization catalysis has reappeared recently as a tool that would allow a better control of the whole process, and also open the way to unprecedented macromolecular architectures [5]. The polymerization of olefins using transition metal- and lanthanide-based catalysts often suffers from the occurrence of uncontrolled transfer (and eventually termination) reactions such as, typically, β-hydride abstraction, which limits the range of molecular weight that can be obtained. One of the ways to prevent the latter reaction is to add an organometallic compound in excess which stabilizes the active species. In certain conditions, a reversible transmetalation of the growing polymeric chain can be observed between the two metals, giving rise to the growth of more than one macromolecular chain per catalyst. In addition to catalyst atom economy, polymers of desired molecular weights can be easily prepared. On the other hand, mastering of transfer reactions in polymerization catalysis is also of interest because it allows the preparation of functionalized polymers and/or oligomers. In the last two decades, the rare earth compounds have importantly contributed to the development of polymerization catalysis [6]. Rare earth derivatives are very versatile catalysts that are able to polymerize with high efficiency a large variety of monomers, from olefinic ones to acrylates, and cyclic polar molecules. Controlled polymerization leading to stereoregular polymers and living processes with polymers yielding well-defined macromolecular characteristics giving rise to the preparation of sequenced copolymers are now quite commonly reachable. We describe in this chapter our recent results, showing the possibilities offered by controlling transfer reactions in polymerization catalysis involving rare earth derivatives as precatalysts. Borohydrido compounds, which can be used in different catalytic combinations, are emphasized in this frame. We limit our scope to olefinic, nonpolar monomers, which Advances in Organometallic Chemistry and Catalysis: The Silver/Gold Jubilee International Conference on Organometallic Chemistry Celebratory Book, First Edition. Edited by Armando J. L. Pombeiro. © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
346 COORDINATIVE CHAIN TRANSFER POLYMERIZATION AND COPOLYMERIZATION require a catalytic combination made up of a precatalyst in association with a cocatalyst, although most concepts discussed herein may also be suitable for acrylates and cyclic polar monomers. 27.2 BASIC CONCEPTS Controlled polymerization is basically observed when initiation takes place much faster than propagation, and in the absence of irreversible transfer reactions. Polymerization catalysis involving organometallic combinations (i.e., a precatalyst associated to a cocatalyst) can in the above conditions display a living character. One additional polymerization step may however be considered, which involves a chain transfer agent (CTA). If this CTA is able to exchange reversibly and rapidly the growing polymer chain with the metal catalyst, the living character of the polymerization is in a certain manner preserved (Fig. 27.1). Coordinative chain transfer polymerization (CCTP, also called catalytic chain transfer polymerization) is typically a process that comprises a chain transfer step that must be i) reversible and ii) much faster than propagation. The growing polymer chain is exchanged between a CTA and the catalyst: when attached to the CTA, it is just a dormant chain, whereas propagation takes place on the catalyst (Scheme 27.1). As a consequence, if the CTA is in excess, several macromolecular chains can be produced per catalyst molecule, and ideally (if the transfer rate is not determining), all chains will have the same length. This concept was first disclosed independently by Samsel [7] and Mortreux [8] in ethylene polymerization, and later extended by the groups of Gibson [9] Kempe [10] and Sita [11]. It is particularly well suited in rare earth-mediated olefin polymerization, where the CTA is a main group alkyl. CCTP is part of the new concepts developed in coordination polymerization catalysis in recent years, also including living degenerative group-transfer coordination polymerization [11], chain-walking polymerization (CWP) [3], and chain-shuttling polymerization (CSP) [4]. Catalyzed chain growth (CCG) is an extension of CCTP and it was introduced by Gibson in 2002 with bis(imino)iron/MAO catalysts combined with ZnEt 2 as CTA and applied to ethylene polymerization. In such a process, all alkyl groups of the CTA metal are involved in the polymer chain transfer, resulting in a Poisson distribution of macromolecules with narrow PDI’s [9]. It is worth noting that this was also the case with Mortreux’s neodymocene/dialkyl Mg catalysts, the dialkylmagnesium compound being simultaneously used as cocatalyst and CTA. In a CSP process, two different catalysts and one CTA are involved: while each catalyst is growing a polymer chain according to its own catalytic behavior, reversible transfer occurs between them via the CTA, leading finally to the grafting of polymer sequences originating from both catalysts, in a single polymer chain. [M]
Initiator m Y [M] m-Y Initiation m [M] (m)
n -Y Propagation [M] m-Y [M] Y' + [M'] Chain transfer [M] (m)
n -Y (m) n -Y [M'] Y' [M] Z + H Termination/irreversible transfer [M] (m)
-Y (m) n -Y ZH Polymer Figure 27.1 Basic steps of a coordination polymerization process. The dotted line defines a living polymerization. [M]-R + [M]-polymer* [M']-polymer [M']–R
Active species Dormant species CTA Scheme 27.1 Polymer chain transfer in CCTP (CTA = chain transfer agent, polymer* is a growing polymer chain).
CATALYTIC SYSTEMS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN COORDINATIVE CHAIN TRANSFER POLYMERIZATION 347 27.3 CATALYTIC SYSTEMS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN COORDINATIVE CHAIN TRANSFER POLYMERIZATION We disclosed a few years ago that borohydride derivatives of the rare earths can advantageously be used as precatalysts for the polymerization of nonpolar monomers, in combination with metal-alkyl compounds as cocatalysts [12]. Such catalysts were found to be very versatile as various monomers were successfully tested. Magnesium cocatalysts gave rise to controlled polymerizations, and the results were different depending on the precatalyst/cocatalyst ratio. Aluminum cocatalysts required the addition of a borate activator to afford polymers. Other catalytic combinations starting from phenate and MOF (metal organic framework) derivatives of the rare earths were also assessed and compared with the borohydride-based ones.
Figure 27.2 summarizes our results with the (co)polymerization of various nonpolar monomers. The catalysts Ln(BH 4
3 (THF)
3 /1 equiv BEM (Ln = Nd, La; BEM = n-butylethylmagnesium) can efficiently polymerize isoprene with high degree of control, with up to 97% trans-1,4 rate [13]. Similar behavior was recently observed with myrcene (7-methyl-3- methylene-octa-1,6-diene, C 10 H 16 ), but to our surprise, the selectivity was cis-1,4 [14]. 1 Toward styrene, the same catalysts afford atactic polystyrene quantitatively and in a living manner [15]. On the other hand, the Ln(BH 4 ) 3 (THF)
3 /1 equiv
MgR 2 catalytic combination was found inactive toward the polymerization of ethylene [16]. Under the conditions of a statistical copolymerization, styrene is incorporated into trans-polyisoprene backbone in the form of single units. Up to 27% styrene is inserted in the copolymer for a 80 : 20 (styrene/isoprene) initial feed monomer ratio [17]. In general, replacing the trisborohydride precatalysts by bisborohydride half sandwiches Cp
Ln(BH
4 ) 2 (THF) 2 (Cp R = substituted cyclopentadienyl ligand) afforded more performing catalysts, in terms of activity and selectivity, with isoprene ( >98% trans- regular) [18], myrcene ( >98% 1,4-regular) [14], styrene (>85% syndiotactic) [19], comonomer incorporation (32% styrene in polyisoprene under the aforementioned conditions [17], and a controlled character allowing the preparation of polystyrene-b- poly(trans-1,4-isoprene) [20]. In a recent study, we showed that metallocenes (Cp R ) 2 Nd(BH 4 )(THF) n and related compounds can be successfully associated to the stoichiometric quantity of magnesium dialkyl to lead to the polymerization of isoprene with quite a fair activity [21]. Although highly trans-stereoselective, the heteroleptic Cp* Nd {(p-tol)NN}(BH 4 )] ISOPRENE CH 2 -CH=C-CH 2 Ph n n Ph
Block and statistical: isoprene/styrene, hexene/styrene 1 BEM
Ln(BH
4 ) 3 (THF) 3 Cp R Ln(BH
4 ) 2 (THF) 2 Cp* 2 Nd(BH
4 )(THF)
trans-polyisoprene Ln = Nd, La MYRCENE STYRENE
[Ln](BH 4 ) / MgR 2 catalytic combinations Nd(BH 4
3 (THF)
3 Cp*Nd(BH
4 ) 2 (THF) 2 1 BEM 1,4-polymyrcene Ln(BH
4 ) 3 (THF) 3 Cp*Ln(BH 4 ) 2 (THF) 2 1 BEM Ln = Nd, La syndio-rich polystyrene CO-POLYMERS Figure 27.2 Various olefinic monomers that are polymerized by rare earth borohydride/dialkylmagnesium catalysts. 1 Recent thorough reexamination of the spectra tend to establish a trans-selectivity. Manuscript in preparation. 348 COORDINATIVE CHAIN TRANSFER POLYMERIZATION AND COPOLYMERIZATION (Cp* = C
5 Me 4 ( n Pr), (p-tol)NN = (p-tol)-NC(Me)CHC(Me)N(p-tol)) was less active than its half-sandwich counterpart Cp*Nd(BH
4 ) 2 (THF) 2 presumably because of lower accessibility to the metal [22]. The neodymocene Cp* 2 Nd(BH
4 )(THF)
is poorly active and selective when associated to 1 equiv BEM toward isoprene polymerization [23]. 27.3.2 Rare Earth Borohydride/Magnesium Dialkyl in Excess (Polymer Chain Transfer Conditions) —Homopolymerization When combined with large excesses of dialkyl magnesium, borohydride rare earth derivatives display a very versatile character, as they afford the chain transfer polymerization of various monomers. By comparison with the stoichiometric addition of MgR 2 to borohydride precatalysts, significant changes are noticed. 27.3.2.1 Ethylene When associated to 20–100 fold excess BEM, borohydrido-neodymocene Cp* 2 Nd(BH
4 )THF affords a highly active catalyst for ethylene polymerization. This combination was the first one devoted to ethylene polymerization that was prepared from a borohydrido organolanthanide precatalyst. The behavior of the system is very similar to the one observed with its chloro analog Cp* 2 NdCl 2 Li(OEt
2 ) 2 [8]: stable activity in a first stage denoting fast and reversible Nd/Mg transfer (Scheme 27.2), and then acceleration of the activity, which corresponds to less transfer efficiency of the MgPE 2 produced. After a peak of activity where the Nd-alkyl moiety polymerizes alone, a rapid decrease of monomer consumption is observed, associated with catalyst deactivation (Fig. 27.3) [23]. The CTA (in large excess) would thus play several roles, [Nd]-(BH
4 ) 1 MgR 2 [Nd]-R
CH 2 =CH 2 [Nd]-(CH
2 -CH
2 ) n -R Propagation Excess MgR 2 Mg[-(CH 2 -CH
2 ) n -R] 2 Reversible transfer + [Nd]-R
Scheme 27.2 Neodymium-catalyzed polyethylene chain growth on magnesium with [Nd](BH 4 )/MgR
2 catalyst. 5000 4000
3000 2000
1000 0 0 5 10 15 Time (min) 20 25 30 Activity (kg/mol/h) (C 5
5 ) 2 NdCl 2 Li(OEt 2 ) 2 (C 5 Me 5 ) 2 Nd(BH 4 )(THF) Figure 27.3 Comparison of the monomer consumption profile in ethylene polymerization with Cp* 2 NdCl
2 Li(OEt
2 ) 2 /BEM (butylethyl- magnesium) and Cp* 2 Nd(BH
4 )THF/BEM ([Mg]/[Nd] = 50, P(ethylene) = 1.05 atm, toluene (20 ml), 90 ◦ C, [Nd] = 2 × 10 −4 M). CATALYTIC SYSTEMS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN COORDINATIVE CHAIN TRANSFER POLYMERIZATION 349 by limiting the reactivity of the [Ln]-R active species, probably through the formation of Ln/Mg heterometallic species. Consequently, deactivation via β-H abstraction is prevented in the first stage of the process. One should note that the macromolecular data (Mn, PDI) of the polymer isolated during the first stage, that is, when reversible and fast chain transfer takes place, match well with one initiated polymer chain per alkyl group, which corresponds to a polyethylene CCG. These catalytic properties are comparable to those obtained a little later with ansa-lanthanidocene borohydride/ n Bu
OctMg [24]. Interestingly, the Cp* 2 Nd(BH 4 )THF/BEM catalytic system is not deactivated in the presence of large excesses of THF. This accounts for THF coordination to the magnesium atom rather than the neodymium one, as observed in the molecular structure of THF adducts of Nd/Mg bimetallic borohydrido derivatives [21]. Surprisingly, we also found that after deactivation (see above, and Fig. 27.3), the catalyst can be reactivated several times by addition of subsequent aliquots of BEM CTA. Generally, it is assumed that termination pathways in polymerization reactions involve β-H abstraction, to afford hydride or allyl species. To reactivate the process, displacement by an Mg-R group has been considered. In our case, the catalyst would be under a dormant form after deactivation, possibly of allyl or hydride type, strongly associated. In the presence of a new excess of BEM, regeneration of the active species through a new alkylation initiation takes place (Fig. 27.4) [25; unpublished results]. Another possible deactivation process has been advanced: the catalyst would be embedded in the growing polymer material, but in such situation reactivation by an alkyl main group metal is highly unlikely. The half-sandwich complex is much less prone to polymerize ethylene when combined with magnesium dialkyl. We observed that Cp*Nd(BH 4 )
(THF) 2 /10 BEM is quite active but 20% vinyl end groups are detected by 1 H NMR, highlighting a substantial occurrence of β-H abstraction [26; unpublished results]. 27.3.2.2 Isoprene In the presence of 1–10 equiv BEM as CTA combined to Cp*Ln(BH 4 )
(THF) n (Ln
= La, n = 2.5; Ln = Nd, n = 2), the observed molecular weight distributions are monomodal, and the number average molecular weight is close to the calculated one, considering two growing chains per magnesium atom. This, along with reasonable polydispersities (PDI 1.3–1.9), highlights a lanthanide-catalyzed polyisoprene chain growth on magnesium (Scheme 27.3). With Ln(BH 4 ) 3 (THF)
3 (Ln
= La, Nd) under the same conditions, transfer efficiency is around 50–60%, which accounts for the CCTP process. With all the catalysts, the polymerization is significantly slowed down with BEM excesses versus 1 equiv magnesium dialkyl, as preliminarily observed for neodymium [13b]. The excess of BEM has another consequence to the polymerization process: the transmetalation is accompanied by a modification of the selectivity of the reaction, from 98.5% 1,4-trans with 5000 4500
4000 3500
3000 2500
2000 1500
1000 500
0 0 50 100 150
200 Time (min) 250 300
350 Activity (kg/mol/h) Figure 27.4 Successive reactivation of Cp* 2 Nd(BH
4 )THF/BEM toward ethylene consumption with addition of new crops of BEM (an arrow corresponds to a new addition of 50 equiv BEM). Ln (BH 4 ) THF (BH 4 ) THF + nBuMgEt Mg 2
2 -CH=C(Me)-CH 2 )
Scheme 27.3 Rare earth-catalyzed polyisoprene chain growth on magnesium. Ln = Nd, La.
350 COORDINATIVE CHAIN TRANSFER POLYMERIZATION AND COPOLYMERIZATION 1 BEM to up to 46% 3,4-polyisoprene using 10 equiv CTA. This simply appears as a way to tune the microstructure of the polyisoprene just by adjusting the quantity of CTA [27]. Actually, a gradual decrease of the 1,4-trans stereoselectivity of the reaction, leading to a great variety of poly(1,4-trans-isoprene)-based materials, is observed at the benefit of 3,4-selectivity with increasing quantities of magnesium dialkyl. This can be at least partially attributed to the growth of 3,4-polyisoprene units on the magnesium atom, which would play a dual role: CTA, but also the propagating species, in a kind of CSP between neodymium and magnesium (see further). Another explanation may be the steric hindrance of a polymetallic Mg/Ln active species that would force the single η 2 coordination of the incoming monomer versus a double η 4 coordination when only 1 equiv BEM is used (see later in the text). By combining dialkylmagnesium and trialkylaluminum, we disclosed that the trans-selectivity can be preserved: a 1,4-trans stereospecific reversible CCTP of isoprene leading to the growth of several poly(1,4-trans-isoprene) chain per catalyst metal is reached using the half-lanthanocene Cp*La(BH 4 )
(THF) 2 in combination with a mixture of BEM and Al i Bu 3 in 1/1/9, 1/1/19, or 1/1/39 quantities, respectively [28]. 27.3.2.3 Myrcene As expected from our previous results with isoprene, polymerization of β-myrcene with neodymium borohydride-based coordination catalysts (Cp*Nd(BH 4 )
(THF) 2 and Nd(BH 4 ) 3 (THF) 3 ) in the presence of gradual excesses of BEM (1–20 equiv) shows high level of transfer reactions efficiency between neodymium and magnesium (Scheme 27.4). For 1–5 Mg cocatalyst equiv, the measured molecular weights (by SEC and end-group integration NMR) match quite well with calculated values for the growth of two chains per magnesium atom. As the BEM quantity increases, polydispersities become more narrow, which accounts for rapid and reversible polymer chain transfer. In addition, the selectivity turns from greater than 98% 1,4 (1 BEM) to 3,4-rich (64%, 20 BEM), thus illustrating the “tuning ability” of the BEM concentration in such processes, as already observed with isoprene. Taking into account the ability of BEM alone to produce low yields of 3,4- polymyrcene 86% regioregular, this switch in selectivity can be regarded as partially resulting, similarly as with isoprene, from a CSP between neodymium and magnesium [14]. 27.3.2.4 Styrene Transfer reactions were also evidenced with borohydride precatalysts associated to BEM in styrene polymerization. In a study centered around the structure/reactivity relationships of the precatalyst, it was shown that Ln(BH
4 ) 3 (THF) x (x = 3, Ln = Nd, La) as well as the mixed La(BH 4 ) 2 Cl(THF)
2.6 led to an efficient transmetalation of the growing polystyrene chain with the Mg-CTA (Scheme 27.5). However, 1 H NMR and MALDI-TOF studies established the simultaneous occurrence of some β-H abstraction. Such uncontrolled termination reactions were absent with LaCl 3 (THF)
3 ,
Polymyrcene [Nd](BH
4 ) CH 2 -CH=C-CH
2 [Mg]
+ MgR 2
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