Chemistry and catalysis advances in organometallic chemistry and catalysis
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- Proposed intermediate (a) Tsuji-Trost π-allyl palladium as electrophiles
- (b) Alkyne-metal complexes as electrophiles
- Proposed intermediate (c) Propargyl alcohol or benzoates as electrophiles
- Proposed intermediates Scheme 26.4
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26 METAL–ORGANO MULTICATALYSIS: AN EMERGING CONCEPT Alexandre F. Trindade, Jo ˜ao N. Rosa, F ´abio M. F. Santos, and Pedro M. P. Gois* Research Institute for Medicines and Pharmaceutical Sciences (iMed.UL), Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal 26.1 INTRODUCTION Over the years, catalysis has proved to be an invaluable tool to prepare myriads of important organic molecules. Metals, namely, transition metals, have a strong foothold in catalysis and synthetic organic chemists learnt to appreciate their high efficiency and reliability when using this unique family of catalysts to promote many key steps in the synthesis of complex molecules [1–4]. Despite the unarguable success of metals, in recent years, the use of small organic molecules as catalysts (organocatalysis), emerged as a very efficient strategy to create new C–C and C–X bonds, often with impressive levels of selectivity [5]. Interestingly, metal catalysis and organocatalysis have independently attained a high level of sophistication, although only recently, the idea of merging these two branches of catalysis resulted in a strategy to unravel unprecedented reactivities [6, 7]. Despite the attractiveness of this multicatalyzed approach, the one-pot combination of metal catalysts and organocatalysts is faced with some significant problems related to catalyst compatibility [8]. Enzymes, which are Nature’s chosen catalysts, often exhibit in their active sites metal catalysts and organocatalysts that cooperate in the biotransformation process. Unsurprisingly, the coexistence of these entities benefits from the physical separation imposed by the active site architecture [9–17]. In contrast, the one-pot use of metal catalysts and organocatalysts may rapidly result in both catalysts self-quenching owing to complexation of the Lewis acid and the Lewis base or a redox process [8–17]. Despite these perceived challenges, in recent years, this multicatalyzed approach has developed into a powerful synthetic strategy, whose impact is clearly demonstrated by the number or reviews recently published covering the multiple aspects of this field [8–17]. Multicatalyzed processes are complex systems quite challenging to classify, namely, those involving metal catalysts and organocatalysts, which may engage in different modes of reaction with unknown mechanisms [18]. Moreover, the presence of more than two catalysts in the multicatalyzed process dramatically increases the system’s complexity, precluding the implementation of a straightforward classification. Ideally, an informative classification should highlight the individual catalyst mode of action, although given the rich chemistry of metal catalysts and organocatalysts, this would result in an impractical strategy. Therefore, more general methods have been recently proposed on the basis of the relation of each catalytic cycle. Patil et al. [19] proposed a classification for binary metal–organo catalyzed systems that encompasses three main divisions (Scheme 26.1):
beginning of the reaction and share the same catalytic cycle. In this case, the desired reaction pathway is favored because of the narrowing of the HOMO–LUMO gap stemming from the individual activation of both intermediates.
First Edition. Edited by Armando J. L. Pombeiro. © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
326 METAL–ORGANO MULTICATALYSIS: AN EMERGING CONCEPT S.M.
S.M.
waiting INT.
CAT 2 P. Relay catalysis S.M. CAT 1 CAT 2 absent INT.
CAT 2 P. Sequential catalysis S.M. CAT 2 CAT 1 CAT 1 CAT 2 P. Cooperative catalysis Scheme 26.1 Cooperative (or synergistic), relay, and sequential catalysis (S.M., starting materials; INT., intermediaries; P., products; CAT, catalyst).
do not share the same catalytic cycle. These processes can be viewed as a set of reactions catalyzed independently in a consecutive manner.
avoid self-quenching. Although this sort of classification might be difficult to apply because of a lack of knowledge regarding the exact role of the catalysts involved, it presents a simple and general method to distinguish these multicatalyzed processes, and for that reason will be adopted in this article. The use of metals as catalysts spans an overwhelming range of transformations in which the substrates are activated via coordination with the metal center; conversely, despite the breathtaking growth of organocatalysis in recent years, it is still possible to consider subareas related with the type of organocatalyst used. Therefore, one can consider the use of [20] (i) Lewis and Brønsted bases as catalysts, (ii) aminocatalysis, (iii) N-heterocyclic carbenes (NHCs) as organocatalysts, and (iv) Brønsted acid catalysis. These subareas will be used to organize the recent developments in cooperative, relay, and sequential metal–organo catalysis.
The concept of merging organocatalysts with metal catalysts to achieve new reaction modes was introduced for the first time by the Kirsche group in their seminal study on intramolecular enolate allylation [7]. The enolate was generated by a conjugate addition of tributylphoshine to an α,β-unsaturated ketone and reacted with a π-allyl palladium complex in an intramolecular manner (Scheme 26.2) [21]. In order to have an efficient cooperative catalysis, the phosphine was not employed in catalytic amounts, highlighting the necessity to have high concentrations of the nucleophilic enolate in solution. A few years later, Wu and collaborators reported a three-component reaction between 2-alkynylbenzaldehydes, amines, and α,β-unsaturated ketones catalyzed by a silver salt and phosphines based on the same Lewis base activation mechanism (Scheme 26.2) [22]. The reduced number of cooperative methodologies using Lewis bases is perhaps due to compatibility issues, as they form stable complexes with many transition metals [7]. Brønsted bases have been explored in cooperative catalysis to deprotonate substrates that subsequently add to metal- activated electrophiles. Regarding the use of these organocatalysts in cooperative catalysis, the combination of quinine and quinine-derived thiourea organocatalysts with Cu(II)-PhBox and Cu(OTf) has been employed in aza-Henry [23] and AMINES AS CATALYSTS 327 CHO
R 2 R 1 + R
3 NH 2 + O R 4 AgOTf 10 mol% PPh 3
R 1 N R 3 R 2 [Ag]
+ Ph 3 P O R 4 R 1 N R 3 R 2 O R 4 45 −70% yield R O OCO 2 Me n Pd(PPh
3 ) 4 1 mol% PBu
3 100 mol% R O
Ph 3 P LnPd II R O n Up to 92% yield Scheme 26.2 Selected examples of phosphine catalysis in cooperation with palladium and silver catalysis. CO 2
Bu NO 2 N CO 2 Et PMP
Cu(II)/PhBOX (20 mol%) Quinine (20 mol%) t BuO
2 C O 2 N NHPMP CO 2 Et H 90% yield, 14 : 1 d.r., 98% ee O R 2 R 2 O Cu(I)
5 mol% Quinine-urea 20 mol% N
N H N O CF 3 CF 3 N O O R 1 R 2 up to 98% yield up to 93% ee R 4
5 R 3 OCO 2 i Pr R 2 NSO 2 Ar O i Pr R 1 Pd(0) (2.5 mol%) Ligand (5 mol%) DBU (10 mol%) PPh 2 PPh 2 OMe OMe
Cl Cl R 4 R 5 R 3 R 2 R 1 NSO 2 Ar O i Pr Up to 99% yield low enantioselectivity S Me
N R 1 R 2 Cu(I)/ligand Li(OC 6 H 4 -p-OMe) 0.25–5 mol% Phosphine oxide 0.5–10 mol% S Me 2 N R 2 R 1 Up to 98% yield up to 98% ee PAr 2
2 OMe OMe
Ar = 3,5-iPr-4-Me 2 N-C 6 H 3 (a) (b)
(c) (d)
Scheme 26.3 (a–d) Selected examples of Brønsted basic catalysis in cooperation with copper and palladium catalysts. Conia-ene reactions [24], respectively (Scheme 26.3a and b), while DBU has been used to generate enamines for palladium- mediated allylation with allylic carbamates [25] (Scheme 26.3c). More recently, Shibasaki’s group studied the cooperation of Cu(CH 3 CN) (soft Lewis acid) and Li(OC 6 H 4 -p-OMe) (hard Brønsted base) in the conjugate addition of terminal alkynes to α,β-unsaturated thioamides (Scheme 26.3d) [26, 27]. 26.3 AMINES AS CATALYSTS 26.3.1 Enamine-Based Catalysis The generation of transient nucleophilic species by the condensation of secondary amines with enolizable aldehydes and ketones is a common mode of activation in organocatalysis. These transient nucleophiles can theoretically react with metal- activated electrophiles, unveiling new reaction pathways that are unachievable using only metal catalysis or organocatalysis. Historically, Tsuji-Trost π-allyl electrophiles were the firsts to be explored in cooperative catalysis with organocatalytically generated enamines. Both intermolecular [28, 29] and intramolecular [30, 31] α-allylations of aldehydes and ketones could be performed using secondary amines and palladium complexes as catalysts (Scheme 26.4a). While the reaction could be extended to allylic phosphonates [31], bromides [30], and alcohols [32], considerable amounts of organocatalyst (10–50 mol%) are usually required, suggesting the need for a higher concentration of the enamine species in solution or possible interactions between the organocatalyst and palladium complexes. Nowadays, the number of metal-activated electrophiles that can be intercepted by transient enamines has increased considerably. The groups of C´ordova, Jørgensen, Michelet, and Ratovelomanana-Vidal independently demonstrated that 328 METAL–ORGANO MULTICATALYSIS: AN EMERGING CONCEPT AcO R
+ O R 2 R 1 O R 2 R 1 R 3 Pd(Ph
3 ) 4 10 −30 mol%
Up to 95% X OAc O H X = CH 2 , NTs
X N H 1,2 1,2
Pd + X O H 1,2 up to 95% up to 13 : 1 d.r. 5 mol% Pyrrolidine Pd(Ph 3 ) 4 5 mol%
Pyrrolidine 40 mol%
Proposed__intermediate__(c)_Propargyl_alcohol_or_benzoates_as_electrophiles'>Proposed___intermediate__(a)_Tsuji-Trost__π-allyl_palladium_as_electrophiles'>Proposed intermediate (a) Tsuji-Trost π-allyl palladium as electrophiles N R'' R' [M]
Proposed intermediate O H X R X = C(CO 2 R), C(SO
2 Ph), CCH
2 OR R = alkyl Cu(OTf) 2 6 mol% (R)-DTBM-MeOBIPHEP 15 mol%
X O H R CyNH
2 Enantioselective intramolecular carbocyclization 43–92% up to 94% e.e. Enantioselective cascade Michael addition-carbocyclization O R + NC R' N H Ar Ar OTMS
Ar = 3,5-(CF 3 ) 2 C 6 H 3 10 mol% Cu(OTf) 5 mol% PPh
3 20 mol%
R' CN RR CHO R = alkyl, aryl; R ′ = CO 2
up to 97% up to 99% e.e. up to 20 : 1 d.r.
S R X + Bn O 2) NaBH
4 R Bn OH R Bn OH +
anti NH Ar Ar OTMS Ru Ru
S Cl Cl *Cp Cp*
R = Ph, X = OH, 90%, 2.2 : 1 syn:anti, 96% e.e. syn 87% e.e. anti Ar = 3,5-(CF 3 ) 2 C 6 H 3 CuOTf/rac-BINAP R = 1-naphthyl, X = OC(O)C 6 F 5 , 54%, 3.8:1 syn:anti, 99% e.e. syn 97% e.e. anti [M]
R H N X Bn
1) Metal 5 mol% 5 mol% Proposed intermediate (c) Propargyl alcohol or benzoates as electrophiles Internal alkynes Ar 1 OH + Bn O 1) 2) NaBH 4 Ar 1 Bn OH Ar 1 Bn OH + syn anti Ar 2 Ar 2 Ar 2 18 −94%, up to 1.2 : 1 syn:anti, up to 97% e.e. syn 97% e.e. anti 20 mol%
InBr 3 N N H O Bn 20 mol%
Ar 1 HO Ar 2 InBr 3 Ar 1 HO Ar 2 InBr 3
intermediates Scheme 26.4 (a–c) Selected examples of cooperative enamine addition into metal-activated electrophiles. (See insert for color representation of the figure.) enamine nucleophiles add to metal-activated terminal alkynes through 5-exo-dig-cyclications. This transformation can be performed intramolecularly using several transition metal sources (such as Ag(I) [33], Cu(II) [34, 35], Cu(I) [36, 37], In(III) [38, 39], and Pd(II) [40–42]) and primary or secondary amines (up to 20 mol%), delivering cyclopentenes [37], dihydrofurans [41], and dihydropyrroles [40] with an internal double bond starting from linear aldehydes, or with an exocyclic double bond with α-branched aldehydes. The cooperative catalytic system retains its efficiency even if the reaction is performed in a one-pot, two-step manner, through a simple conjugated addition/enamine cooperative cascade (Scheme 26.4b). Mechanistically, it was proposed that the metal coordinates the alkyne and the enamine double bond, followed by the cyclization and consequent protonation of the organometallic intermediate. Unfortunately, in some of the studies cited herein, the necessity of cooperative catalysis was not demonstrated by performing blank tests without the metal or the amine. In parallel, the Nishibayashi group found that enantioselective intermolecular α-propargylations of aldehydes can be performed using chiral pyrrolidine derivatives and thiolate-bridged diruthenium [43] or copper [44] salts as catalysts (Scheme 26.4c). In this methodology, the metal catalyst activates terminal propargylic alcohols and benzoates to form metal-allenylidene intermediates that are susceptible to attack at the γ -position by the transient enamines [43] or dienamines [45]. In order for internal alkynes to become suitable substrates for this transformation, InBr 3 [46] was employed as catalyst as it is able to generate propargylic cationic intermediates (Scheme 26.4c). MacMillan et al. studied the reactivity of transient enamines formed with organocatalysts with hypervalent iodine reagents in the presence of metal catalysts (Scheme 26.5a). They found that Cu(I) salts can be used in combination with chiral imidazolidinones to perform α-electrophilic trifluoromethylation [47], arylation [48], and vinylation [49] of aldehydes. As suggested by the authors, the most likely mechanism involves a copper-mediated I–O bond cleavage furnishing a highly AMINES AS CATALYSTS 329 O (a) (b) H R 1 + I O F 3 C or I Ar 1 Mes OTf or I Ph OTf
Ar 2 Catalytic System O H R 1 CF 3 or or O H R 1 Ar 1 O H R 1 Ar 2 N H N Bn O 20 mol% CuCl 5 mol% N H N Ph O 10 mol% CuBr 10 mol% t Bu . TFA .TCA
N H N Ph O 10 mol% CuBr 5 mol% t Bu .TFA 70 −87%
93 −97% e.e. 67 −95%
90 −95% e.e. 71 −91%
93 −97% e.e. Catalytic system
I Ph Ph CuBr Cu(III)
Br OTf
Ph + PhI
OTf N R 1 N R 1 Cu(III)
Br Ph N H - O H R 1 Ph Proposed
mechanism (arylation): O H
1 + Catalytic System O H R 1 OTMP N O N H N O 20 mol% CuCl
2 10 mol%
77 −90%
89 −95% e.e. N Bn
4 Catalytic system N
R 1 N O Cu II O − Cu(I)
N N R 1 O PMTO Proposed mechanism: I O
3 C Cu(I) I OCu(I)
F 3 C I OCu(I)
F 3 C N R 1 N H − O H R 1 CF 3 N R 1 − [I] Proposed
mechanism (CF
3 ):
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