Chemistry and catalysis advances in organometallic chemistry and catalysis
PART IV ORGANOMETALLIC POLYMERS AND MATERIALS
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PART IV
ORGANOMETALLIC POLYMERS AND MATERIALS 379 29 ORGANOMETALLIC POLYMERS Manuel Serrano-Ruiz, Franco Scalambra, and Antonio Romerosa* ´ Area de Qu´ımica Inorg´anica-CIESOL, University of Almeria, Almer´ıa, Spain 29.1 INTRODUCTION In a broad sense, an organometallic polymer is any macromolecule that contains both organic and metallic moieties linked by a carbon– metal bond. In 1955 F. S. Arimoto and A. C. Haven, which were working for DuPont, presented the first example of organometallic polymers with the successful synthesis of polyvinylferrocene by free radical polymerization of vinyl ferrocene [1]. Since that initial discovery, there have been tremendous efforts to grow, diversify, and apply this exciting area of macromolecular chemistry [2–5]. The vast majority of commercially available polymers feature an organic composition with C, N, and O as integral structural components. Nevertheless, benefits can be gained when metals are incorporated within an organic-polymeric framework, such as new luminescent and electronic-active materials, extensive flame resistance, high flexibility, redox activity, chemical sensing, and electrochromic behavior [6–12]. Irrespective of the application, the utility and performance of metal-containing polymers can, in varying degrees, be ascribed to the ability of the transition metal centers to change oxidation states and/or facilitate the electron flow in ways that organic materials simply cannot [13]. Nowadays, organometallic polymers are employed in a multitude of design concepts and their breadth of applications is as varied as their structures. The dramatic increase in research in the area of metal-containing macromolecules has provided original articles and a number of excellent reviews and books that discuss developments in this exciting field and properties of new compounds [4, 14–20]. The isoelectronic diatomics, carbon monoxide and cyanide, have rich histories as ligands for transition metals and both ligands inevitably bond metal centers primarily through carbon, placing them among the simplest and most robust carbon-bound ligands. However, despite the clear analogy between CO and CN − , carbonyl is regarded as one of the quintessential ligands in organometallic chemistry whereas cyanide has traditionally been regarded a strictly inorganic ligand. The reasons for this designation include the analogy between CN − and the halides, its stability as an aqueous anion, and its ability to form simple metal salts. Cyanide complexes have a long history in inorganic chemistry that is summed up in some good recent reviews and books [21–27] and therefore cyano complexes will not be covered by the present chapter. In addition, recent findings on dendrimers and solid-supported organometallic polymers will be not discussed. For updating and extensive discussion regarding the use of metal dendrimers and solid-supported organometallic polymers see recent reviews and books [28–38]. The large number, variety, and diversity of properties of organometallic polymers can be classified in a large number of different ways depending on the polymer characteristic to be stressed. One of the simplest groupings for organometallic polymers is based in the position of the metal in the molecular structure of the polymer. From this point of view, the organometallic polymers could be classified into (i) main-chain or metal-backbone organometallic polymers (MBOP) and (ii) side-group or metallic-side organometallic polymers (MSOP). The MBOP need the formation of metal–ligand bonds in order to exist. The ligand must link the metals constituting the polymer, simultaneously enabling the coordinated transition
First Edition. Edited by Armando J. L. Pombeiro. © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
382 ORGANOMETALLIC POLYMERS metal to exhibit a desired property and maintaining control over physical attributes of the overall material. MSOP are characterized by an organic polymer backbone substituted by organometallic groups. In these compounds, the polymeric structure exists regardless of the presence of metal atoms. The organic main-chain polymer disposes of metal binding sites. The characteristics of the metal center as well as the polymer backbone can generally be designed independently. The MSOP can be obtained by addition of a transition metal to the organic polymer and alternatively, a monomer containing a pendant metal-complex can often be polymerized directly. The first procedure used is complicated but provides an accurate control of the resulting polymer, while the second one is more convenient from a synthetic point of view but the accurate determination of metal content in the obtained material is very difficult. Polymer chains of different chemical composition can be attached at a common junction constituting a block copolymer. Much of the current interest in block copolymer self-assembly is directed to the formation of more complex structures with broad and growing range of different structures and properties [39–41]. When the block copolymer is constituted by combination of an MBOP and an MSOP its classification becomes complicated. Some interesting examples of organometallic block copolymers have been included in any of the two proposed types of organometallic polymers depending on their most significant character as MBOP or MSOP. In addition, a dual terminology is proposed for coordination polymers (CPs) and metal–organic frameworks (MOFs), compounds generated in interdisciplinary research fields with their origins in solid-state, inorganic, and coordination chemistry [42, 43]. A survey on organometallic polymers indicates that 1D, 2D, or 3D CPs cover all possible cases and for the classification of the organometallic polymers the MOF concept is a superfluous term and therefore is not used in this chapter. Nevertheless, the net influence of the metal on the properties of the organometallic polymers made convenient to classify both kind of organometallic polymers, MBOP and MSOP, depending on their metal composition in homo- and heterometallic polymers. Finally, emphasis is placed on the synthesis, characterization, physical properties, and possible applications of the organometallic polymers presented in this chapter, providing an overview of the actual state of the field. 29.2 METAL-BACKBONE ORGANOMETALLIC POLYMERS MBOP involve transition metals bonded by a carbon– metal bond as ligand linkers. Therefore both components of the backbone, the transition metal and the organic ligand, are essential for the continuation of the polymer. Metallic polymers that employ non-C-dative-type interactions between the metal atoms and the bridging ligands are sometimes called coordination polymers (non-C-CPs). The MBOP need the presence of metal–ligand bonds to exist. To synthesize an organometallic polymer the linker must be a ligand with two opposing points of contact capable of binding two metals. The adequate design of the organic moieties linking metal centers along the polymer backbone must be considered as well as the metal coordination number. Ligands that show high affinities toward selected transition metals must be employed in order to have sufficient thermodynamic driving force to facilitate polymerization and affording polymeric materials with high molecular weights. Ligand– metal bonds could be weak and under thermodynamic control the MBOP could depolymerize. This possibility introduces additional challenges regarding the synthesis and longevity in solid state, solution, and polymer storage. For an in-depth analysis of non-C-CPs literature, we recommend the excellent review by Dobrawa and W¨urthner [44]. 29.2.1 Homo-Metal-Backbone Organometallic Polymers The 1D-Pt-backbone organometallic polymers are among those with more interesting electronic properties. Electron and energy transfer are two of the most significant and fundamental processes in chemistry and biology, gaining interest for application in bulk heterojunction solar cells [45, 46]. Platinum acetylide oligomers and polymers with π-conjugated arylene units are a versatile platform for fundamental studies directed at understanding the effect of heavy metal centers on exciton structure and charge transport in π-conjugated systems [47–52]. These organometallic polymers are characterized by excited state properties, which are dominated by long-lived triplet excitons. These particular properties make Pt-acetylide organometallic polymers also potentially useful for optoelectronic applications including polymer light-emitting diodes (PLEDs) [53, 54] and bulk heterojunction solar cells [55]. Although the monodisperse oligomers (Pt
NDI
2 , where n = 2, 3, 6, and 10) (Scheme 29.1) end capped with naphthalene diimide units are a not extended polymers, they are long enough to exemplify how in larger polymers a similar combination serves as traps for triplet excitons via charge separation and negative polarons by charge shift from the chain to the end group [56]. Using fast time-resolved pulse radiolysis and laser flash photolysis methods, the authors have been able to directly probe the dynamics of electron and triplet exciton transport along the conjugated segments. The results show that transport of both carriers along these organometallic “molecular wires” is relatively rapid, occurring on timescales less than 200 ps over a
METAL-BACKBONE ORGANOMETALLIC POLYMERS 383 Pt PBu 3 PBu
3 N N N N C
8 H 17 C 8 H 17 O O O O O O O O n Pt PBu 3 PBu
3 n H N N C 8 H 17 O O O O H Pt
NDI 2
Pt n , n = 2, 4 NDI-H
Structural formulas for Pt–acetylide-backbone organometallic oligomers containing naphthalene diimide units. N HN
O O O Pt PBu
3 PBu
3 Pt PBu 3 PBu
3 Pt PBu 3 PBu
3 Pt PBu 3 PBu
3 Pt PBu 3 PBu
3 Figure 29.1 Five units of a Pt 10 (naphthalene diimide) 2 molecule showing the polaron or exciton diffusion via a random hopping mechanism.
Cationic polymer Anionic polymer Counter anions Counter cations Hybrid materials Scheme 29.2 Possible combinations of ionic polymers to constitute a hybrid polymer. distance of 3–5 nm. Analysis of the dynamics of charge and exciton transport suggests that the carriers move along the chain by an incoherent, site-to-site hopping mechanism. The triplet hopping process may be gated by changes in the conformation of the monomers, with a tentative assignment to large-amplitude torsional motion of phenylene units. Taken together, the results provide insight into the mechanism of transport of carriers in organometallic, conjugated electronic systems. Therefore, in the Pt-acetylide-backbone organometallic polymers containing naphthalene diimide units, the localized triplet excitons and negative polarons initially on the Pt-acetylide chain rapidly transport to the end chains and become trapped by charge separation or charge shift to the naphthalene diimide moieties (Fig. 29.1) [57]. One of the most interesting recent examples of Pt-MBOP are those containing polycarbazoles that have shown numerous applications in the area of photovoltaic cells [58–60] and PLEDs [61–69]. On combining two ionic polymers together (Scheme 29.2), their mutual effects on each other should modify the properties of the separate polymers, including optical and luminescence characteristics. An interesting property that could provide the combination of two different polymers is the so-called the antenna effect [70]: the heavy atom constituting one of the polymers promotes the population of the triplet state and the resulting accentuated phosphorescence is transferred by a nonradiative process that allows the harvested light energy to flow through a material from one site to another. Interesting examples of this kind of hybrid polycarbazole polymers were presented by Leclerc et al. [71]; these are constituted by the organometallic polymers {as in Scheme 29.3 [Ag(dmb) 2 ]BF 4 }
384 ORGANOMETALLIC POLYMERS Ag Ag
Ag Ag Ag N N C C {Ag(dmb)
2 + } n n 9.0 Å
N N
R R
2 -CH
2 -CH
2 -SO
3 Na; -CH
2 -CH
2 -CH
2 -CH
2 -SO
3 Na Pt Ph 2 P Ph 2 P Pt PPh
2 C PPh 2 N N C n {Pt
2 (dppm)
2 (CNC
6 Me 4 NC) 2+ } n 17.2 Å
N R N R n R = -CH
2 -CH
2 -CH
2 -CH
2 -SO
3 Na
Structures of {[Ag(dmb) 2 ]BF
4 }
and {[Pt
2 (dppm)
2 (CNC
6 Me 4 NC)](BF 4 ) 2 }
(dmb = 1,8-diisocyano-p-menthane; dppm
= (Ph 2 P) 2 CH 2 ) and the organic polymers of the class ( −carbazone–) n and (
−carbazone–C 6 H 4 –)
. The distance between repetitive units containing two positive charges are included. and {[Pt
2 (dppm)
2 (CNC
6 Me 4 NC)](BF 4 ) 2 }
(dmb = 1,8-diisocyano-p-menthane; dppm = (Ph 2 P) 2 CH 2 ; CNC 6 Me 4 NC = 1,4-diisocyano-tetramethylbenzene) and conjugated organic polymers of the type ( −Cz−C 6 H 4 −)
and ( −Cz−)
n , where
Cz is a 2,7-linked carbazole unit substituted by (CH 2 ) 3 SO 3 Na or (CH 2 ) 4 SO 3 Na pendant groups at the N-position (Scheme 29.3). In 2005, Bielawski et al. [72–86] presented a variety of novel N-heterocyclic carbenes metal-backbone organometallic polymers (NHC-MBOP), which exhibit high thermal stability and versatile electronic properties. Following this finding, a number of similar compounds have been synthesized, which are useful for the preparation of self-assembled materials [87], and phosphorescent [88] and luminescent polymeric complexes [89–93]. Remarkably, these polymers have showed also to be active, efficient, and recyclable self-supported catalysts for the Suzuki– Miyaura catalytic coupling of a variety of aryl halides in water [94]. Metal-Backbone Organometallic Polymers could be assembled into capsular structures that provide a nanoenvironment with specific chemical behavior, different from the exterior surroundings [95–99]. These container-like structures can act as catalytic reaction chambers, thus affording a highly concentrated reaction site that lowers the energy barrier for chemical reactions The Ag(I)-NHC are very interesting and useful owing to their potential applications in various fields such as luminescent materials, host–guest chemistry, medicine, and catalysis [100, 101]. These polymers also show fascinating photophysical properties that can be strongly affected by the nature of the ligand. The d 10 configuration of the silver ion is able to be combined with the π* ligand orbitals to produce metal-to-ligand charge-transfer and/or intraligand transitions, which result in the luminescence of these systems [102, 103]. The vast majority of Ag(I) complexes are known to emit at low temperatures, while only a few monomeric and polymeric Ag complexes display intense photoluminescence at room temperature [104–106]. Reaction of a bis-bipyridyl-substituted imidazolium ligand (LX, X = Br
− , PF
6 − , BPh 4 − ) linked through CH 2 groups with Ag 2 O afforded the silver(I)–NHC–MBOP complexes [AgL 2 ]Br, [Ag
2 L 2 ]X 2 and the {[Ag 3 L 2 ](PF
6 ) 3 ·4CH 3 CN } n (X = Br, PF 6 , BPh
4 ) that is constituted by two alternate Ag(I) atoms with different coordination modes (Fig. 29.2). These compounds display interesting luminescent properties in solid state at room temperature [107]. Another interesting example of Ag(I)-backbone organometallic polymers are those based on diallylmelamine and poly- carboxylates. Silver–vinyl bonding represents a versatile synthon for the construction of polymeric metallosupramolecular architectures. The particular structural motifs result from the introduction of different auxiliary polycarboxylates into the silver/diallylmelamine system and the diverse coordination modes and conformations of diallylmelamine (Fig. 29.3) [108]. Remarkably, apparent silver–vinyl interactions with a η 2
these complexes (Ag–C = 2.311(4) – 2.467(5) ˚A). In addition, they display solid-state photoluminescence and moderate thermal stabilities at room temperature.
METAL-BACKBONE ORGANOMETALLIC POLYMERS 385 Figure 29.2 Polymeric structure of {[Ag 3
2 ](PF
6 ) 3 ·4CH 3 CN } n . Hydrogen atoms, counter-ions, and solvent molecules are omitted for the sake of clarity.
Crystal structure of [Ag 2 (diallylmelamine) 2 (glutaric)] n and a packing perspective. Hydrogen atoms are omitted for clarity. Actual and significant examples of NHC-MBOP were presented by Karimi and Akhavan [109] that described the preparation and characterization of a variety of Pd–NHC–MBOP materials with different N-alkyl functionalities. These compounds are active catalysts for the Suzuky– Miyaura coupling of chloroarenes in water (Scheme 29.4), the Pd- organopolymer with the N-dodecyl group being the most active catalyst. This reaction is characterized by the deactivated and hindered substrates under aqueous conditions without the need of any co-organic solvent. The catalysts seem to be highly recyclable and are the source of production of active soluble Pd species in the form of either Pd nanoparticles or fragmented Pd–NHC complexes. The described organometallic polymers are not only a possible source of trace amounts of Pd nanoparticles but also the capsular structures of these polymers in water provide a way of entrapment of nanoclusters in the hydrophobic region. The authors suggest that the highest activity observed for the N-dodecyl-substituted palladium polymer for the Suzuki coupling is probably owing to a combination of lipophilic character of capsular chambers and the hydrophobic effect of water, which results in an increased concentration of coupling partners inside the capsular structures where the Pd species are located. Therefore, the observed reactivity might also be due, to some extent, to the faster production of active Pd species that could be entrapped in Pd nanoclusters. Since the first discovery of fullerenes [110] and availability of synthetically useful amount of C 60 and higher fullerenes (C 70 , C 76 , C
78 , and C
84 ) [111], much work has been done to investigate the physical properties and the reactivity of these stable molecules. The highly interesting electronic properties of fullerenes have lead to the possibility of using units of fullerenes in the formation of polymers. Transition metal–fullerene compounds are generally classified into two categories: 386 ORGANOMETALLIC POLYMERS N N
N Pd Pd Br Br R R R R Br Br N N N N Pd R R R R Br Br n R X B(OH)
2 R Polymer-encapsulated Pd nanoclusters X = Br, Cl Download 11.05 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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