Chemistry and catalysis advances in organometallic chemistry and catalysis
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- 29.2.2 Heterometal-Backbone Organometallic Polymers
- 29.3.1 Homo-Metallic-Side Organometallic Polymers
- Scheme 29.10
- Scheme 29.11
Scheme 29.4 Suzuky–Miyaura coupling of chloroarenes in water catalyzed by the NHC-Pd organometallic polymers. M δ+
Scheme 29.5 Probable disposition for [C 60 M]
(M = Pd, Pt, Ir, Rh, Au, Ag) and proposed electronic pathway into the organometallic polymer. those involving metal encapsulation in which there is charge transfer from the metal to the fullerene cage [112] and the covalent η 2 -transition metal complexes [113], which serve to relieve the strain in the fullerene structure [114]. However, exohedral metal complexes of higher hapticity are disfavored by fullerene curvature and it is difficult for C 60 to function as a ligand in η 5 - and η 6 -complexation reactions because the fullerene π-orbitals are directed away from the metal as a result of the rehybridization of the ring carbon atoms. In C 60 , the π-orbital axis vectors are directed away from the center of the respective rings hindering η 6
η 5 -complexation [115]. C 60 can
be polymerized into directly linked fullerenes by light, high pressure, or high temperature [116–119]. Fullerenes may be attached regularly to a polymeric backbone chain through the Friedel–Crafts type reactions of fullerenating polystyrenes [120]. Moreover, indirectly linked fullerenes involving a spacer group are known. The polymers [C 60 Pd] n (Scheme 29.5) or [C 60
n are formed from C 60 and [Pd
2 (dba)
3 ] ·CHCl 3 or [Pt(dba) 2 ], respectively (dba = dibenzylideneacetone) [121–124], and others metals such as Ir, Rh, Au, and Ag [125–127]. These polymers have possible applications in catalysis, electronic devices [128, 129] and absorbent materials [130].
The photophysical properties of the heterometal-backbone organometallic polymers {Ir}-{Pt}-{Ir}-{Pt}-{Ir} ({Ir} = [Ir(ppy)
2 (bpy*)]
+ ([Pt]
= trans-[Pt(PBu 3 ) 2 (C ≡C) 2 ]; ppy
= phenyl-2-yl-pyridine, bpy* = bipyridyl) (Scheme 29.6) reveal an unprecedented triplet energy transfer from the terminal iridium to the central iridium subunit [131] that is a new example of emission mechanism that arises from the distinct Ir subunits to conjugated systems [132]. This kind of emission is suggestive of the concept of localized triplet exciton for platinum-acetylide-containing oligomers introduced by Schanze and coworkers (commented previously) [50]. Consequently, localized triplet excited states are bound to exist and energy
METAL-BACKBONE ORGANOMETALLIC POLYMERS 387 N N Pt Ir(C^N)
2 PBu
3 PBu
3 n n + N N Pt Ir(C^N)
2 PBu
3 PBu
3 + N N Ir(C^N)
2 + N N Pt Ir(C^N) 2 PBu
3 PBu
3 2+ N N Ir(C^N)
2 N N Pt PBu
3 PBu
3 N N Pt Ir(C^N)
2 PBu
3 PBu
3 + Pt PBu 3 PBu 3 N N Pt Ir(C^N)
2 PBu
3 PBu
3 3+ N N Ir(C^N)
2 N N Pt Ir(C^N)
2 PBu
3 PBu
3 Scheme 29.6 Structures of polymers {Ir}-{Pt}-{Ir}-{Pt}-{Ir} ({Ir} = [Ir(ppy) 2 (bpy*)] + ([Pt]
= trans-[Pt(PBu 3 ) 2 (C ≡C) 2 ]; ppy
= C ˆ N = phenyl-2-yl-pyridine, bpy* = bipyridyl). N N Pt PBu
3 PBu
3 N N Ir n + PF6 − Excitation Charge transfer Triplet emission Scheme 29.7 Hybrid excited states including excitation, charge transfer, and triplet emission from Pt to Ir chromophores in conjugated Pt-Ir polymer containing poly[trans-[(5,5 -ethynyl-2,2 -bipyridine) bis(phenyl-2-yl-pyridine)-iridium(III)]. transfer should also be possible. The energy transfer is thus consistent with the Dexter mechanism (double-electron exchange) [133] in the triplet state that indicates that rate of energy transfer depends on the donor–acceptor orbital overlaps. This work stresses a very unusual excited state behavior whereby the terminal Ir unit emits as a discrete luminophore, despite conjugation, and also undergoes triplet energy transfer to the central Ir unit, for a second, lower energy emission. Another type of interesting heterometal-backbone organometallic polymers are those obtained by reaction of trans-dichlorobis(tri-n-butylphosphine)platinum(II) with bis(2-phenylpyridinato)-(5,5 -diethynyl-2,2 -bipyridine)iridium(III) hexafluorophosphate. The resulting conjugated Pt–Ir polymers containing 5,5 -ethynyl-2,2 -bipyridine, 2-phenylpyridinato and tri-n-butylphosphine are luminescent (Scheme 29.7) [134]. Comparison of the absorption and emission band positions and their temperature dependence, emission quantum yields, and lifetimes with those for models containing only the {Pt} or the
{Ir} units, indicates hybrid excited states including features from both chromophores [135] with charge transfer between the metals units. The presence of a hybrid excited state was also supported by density functional theory (DFT) and time-dependent density functional theory (TDDFT) calculations. Their photophysical parameters ( , τ ) do not decrease 388 ORGANOMETALLIC POLYMERS significantly compared with similar complexes including a fewer number of atoms [136, 137], and therefore the processability of these materials can be retain without loss in emission quantum yields, making them useful for the design of photonic materials such as PLEDs and light-emitting electrochemical cells [18, 138– 140]. The presented approach to synthesize new p-type photovoltaic active materials serves as a good illustration of the recent trend in designing structures useful for obtaining solution-processable functional polymers [141–145]. By using metalloporphyrins as the building block in combination with linear conjugated systems of transition metal-alkyne polymers, a series of soluble platinum metallopolyynes containing Zn-(porphyrin) chromophores and electron-rich aromatic rings (benzene and/or thiophene) (Scheme 29.8) were synthesized [146]. The introduction of a thiophene unit into the porphyrin- based polymer main chain extended the π-conjugation and covered the missing absorption region (430–530 nm) or enhanced the absorption of the weaker Q-bands (the region from 530 to 540 nm). This work represents the first example of porphyrin- containing polymetallaynes used for harvesting solar energy in solution-processed photovoltaic devices. These deeply colored absorbing polymers are thus attractive candidates as a new class of functional material toward organometallic photovoltaic technology. A continuous optimization of the chemical structures of porphyrin and polymer main chain by incorporating some special functional chromophores would improve the absorption properties and hence enhance the photovoltaic efficiency of porphyrin-containing polymers [147]. The structurally remarkable silver–tin clusters with stannylene stanna-closo-dodecaborate and coligands such as pyridine, bipyridine, and isonitriles that was published recently present different but also very interesting properties [148]. These complexes were synthesized from the salt [Et 4 N] 8 [Ag
4 (SnB
11 H 11 ) 6 ] that served as a versatile starting material. From the reaction of the silver salt [Et 4 N] 8 [Ag
4 (SnB
11 H 11 ) 6 ] with the bridging ligand 1,4-diisocyanobenzene (DIB), a linear polymeric coordination compound was formed, and a three-dimensional network structure was the product from the reaction of DIB with the silver salt [Me 4 N][Ag(SnB 11 H 11 )]. With the dianionic stannylene stanna-closo-dodecaborate [SnB 11 H 11 ] 2 − , silver–tin aggregation with coligands such as pyridines and isonitriles results in the formation of dimers, tetramers, polymers, and network-structured materials (Fig. 29.4). The tin-bridged silver–silver contacts show a very short interatomic Ag–Ag distances ( ˚ A) (Ag1 − Ag2 = 3.0549(9), Ag1 − Ag3 = 3.2512(12), Ag2 − Ag2’ = 2.8388(11), Ag2 − Ag3 = 2.7408(9)). The interesting heterometallic-organometallic complex
{[Me 4 N] 4 [Ag
4 (SnB
11 H 11 ) 4 (DIB) 6/2 ] } n (Fig.
29.5) in dichloromethane exchange the acetonitrile and benzonitrile molecules in the inside channels with dichloromethane molecules, which was confirmed by the single-crystal structure determination. However the reported silver–tin network structure is not stable in the absence of solvent and repeated solvent exchange is not possible. Nevertheless, this complex is a good example of new porous materials built with organometallic reagents, which is of great interest as a possible new material that combines and changes properties depending on the inclusion molecules [149, 150]. Most of the heterometallic-backbone organometallic polymers are insoluble solids or only soluble in organic solvents. Very few examples of organometallic polymers that are soluble in water or are water compatible have been described. Water is the universal solvent, most of the natural systems contain water, and it is also an excellent solvent for chemical synthesis. In 2005, the first example of water-soluble organometallic polymeric complex in which two different metal- complex moieties built the backbone-polymeric chain {[(PTA)
2 CpRuDMSO]- μ-AgCl 2
n (Fig. 29.6) [151] was presented. The Ru–Ag-backbone organometallic polymer displays a 1D structure including PTA (3,5,7-triaza-phosphaadamantane) as metal-coordinating spacers between the monometallic {CpRu(DMSO)} and {AgCl 2 } units that are respectively bonded to the P and N-PTA atoms. This Ru–Ag organometallic polymer also retains its polymeric structure in water at high temperature as showed by light-scattering measurements. This initial finding triggered research activity on the synthesis of polymers containing PTA and PTA-derivatives [152–155]. Recently, a new and interesting example of water-soluble Ru–Ru–Au organo-heterometallic polymer {[{(PTA) 2 CpRu- μ-CN-RuCp(PTA) 2 }-μ-Au(CN) 4 ] } n (Fig. 29.7) was presented. This water-soluble MBOP is constituted by N N
N Zn S m n S Pt m n PBu
3 PBu
3 n ′
27%
32%
m = 1, n = 0, P3 35%
Scheme 29.8 Platinum metallopolyynes containing Z n –C Porphyrin chromophores and electron-rich aromatic rings (benzene and/or thiophene). METAL-BACKBONE ORGANOMETALLIC POLYMERS 389 Figure 29.4 Crystal structure of metal organization group of {[Me 4
4 [Ag
4 (SnB
11 H 11 ) 4 (DIB) 6/2 ] } n . The cations, the hydrogen atoms, and the connecting phenyl rings (left) and the boron atoms (right) have been omitted for clarity.
View along the plane a–b of {[Me 4
4 [Ag
4 (SnB
11 H 11 ) 4 (DIB) 6/2 ] } n . The solvents, the cations and the hydrogen atoms into the material porous were not represented for the sake of clarity. (See insert for color representation of the figure.)
390 ORGANOMETALLIC POLYMERS Figure 29.6 Crystal structure and packing of water-soluble Ru–Ag-backbone organometallic polymer. (See insert for color representation of the figure.) Figure 29.7 Crystal structure and packing of the water-soluble Ru–Ru–Au polymer {[{(PTA) 2 CpRu- μ-CN-RuCp(PTA) 2 }- μ-Au(CN) 4 ] } n . a dimeric {CpRu(PTA-κP) 2 - μ-CN-(PTA-κP) 2 RuCp } + moiety bonded to a {Au(CN) 4 } − complex unit by a N-PTA atom. This organometallic polymer exhibits a thermo-gel behavior and is the first and unique example until now of a thermo-gel- hetero-organometallic polymer in water [156]. 29.3 METALLIC-SIDE ORGANOMETALLIC POLYMERS The organometallic polymers with metallic-side chain (MSOP) are constituted by an all-organic polymer backbone substituted by metal-complex groups and, therefore, the polymeric structure exists regardless of the presence of metal atoms coordinated to the ligand groups bonded to the main organic chain. The characteristics of the metal center as well as the polymer backbone can generally be independently adjusted. The side-chain organometallic polymers could be starting compounds
METALLIC-SIDE ORGANOMETALLIC POLYMERS 391 for providing hybrid materials by using known traditional polymerization reactions (standard addition such as ionic or radical polymerization, ring-opening polymerization (ROP) and condensation polymerization reactions) [157]. The synthesis of the MSOP can be accomplished by reaction of metals with the previously synthesized organic polymer with pendant ligand groups and by direct polymerization of a monomer containing a pendant metal-complex alone or with copolymers. The synthesis of MSOP is certainly advantageous, providing a large variety of possible structures with an elevated control and reproducibility. Nevertheless, the structural independence of the organic and inorganic components can complicate an accurate characterization of both the composition of the organic skeleton as well as the metal content. 29.3.1 Homo-Metallic-Side Organometallic Polymers The first synthesized organometallic polymer was a homo-metallic-side organometallic polymer (HMSOP), prepared by Arimoto and Haven in 1955. Since this initial finding, the number of HMSOP has increased exponentially. One of the most interesting HMSOP are the metallocene-containing polymers, in particular the ferrocene polymers. They have attracted significant attention because of their great potential in catalytic, optical, magnetic, and biological applications owing to the unique geometries and physicochemical properties [2, 158–160]. Recently, Manners et al. have presented the synthesis and characterization of an analogous soluble electron-rich poly(ferrocenylenevinylene), addressing the solubility limitations of the poly(ferrocenylenevinylene) by introducing t-butyl groups on the Cp ligands of ansa-(vinylene)ferrocene followed by ring-opening metathesis polymerization (ROMP) [161]. UV–vis analysis of the synthesized compounds showed a bathochromic shift accompanied by a hyperchromic effect for the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO)–lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) transition upon polymerization consistent with a moderate degree of conjugation in the synthesized polymer. The number of possible primary structures are four (Scheme 29.9), which are similar to those for the polymers obtained by ROMP of the 2,3-difunctional norbornadiene [162]. The NMR spectroscopy data indicate that none of the investigated polymerizations was stereoselective. This fact evidences the difficulty in obtaining selective side-chain organometallic polymers despite the efforts targeted to obtain them and the use of actual synthetic procedures. Another interesting water-soluble side-chain organometallic polymer containing poly(vinylferrocene) (PVFc) and poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) blocks was presented by Gallei et al. [163]. The general synthetic described provides a facile route to a large variety of macromolecular architectures containing PVFc blocks combined with polyether chains. For the first time, utilizing a protected epoxide derivative as end-capping reagent, the combination of carb- and oxyanionic polymerization has been implemented for obtaining PVFcs. Two different glycidyl ethers [benzyl glycidyl ether (BGE) and ethoxy ethyl glycidyl ether (EEGE)] were employed for the functional end-capping of the PVFc block (Scheme 29.10). Molecular weights of the end-functionalized PVFcs range between 1000 and 3600 g/mol and block copolymers with 10,000– 50,000 g/mol overall molar masses were obtained. These metal-containing amphiphilic block copolymers exhibit good solubility in water and the synthetic pathway provides an efficient approach to water-soluble and redox-active complex polymeric architectures. Fe
Bu
Bu
Bu
Bu
Bu
Bu
Bu
Bu
Bu
Bu
Bu
Bu
Bu
Bu
Bu
Bu Fe Fe Fe Fe Fe Fe Fe Cis conformers Trans conformers Scheme 29.9 Four possible primary structures for the monomer repeating units in side-chain organometallic polymer derivate from poly(ferrocenylenevinylene).
392 ORGANOMETALLIC POLYMERS Fe
THF,
−12 °C Fe
Fe
O O 1. 2. MeOH
Fe n-Bu n OH O 1. Potassium naphtalide, THF,
m O 2. MeOH
Fe n-Bu n O O O H
Fe
OH OH 1. Potassium naphtalide, THF,
O 2. MeOH
Fe n-Bu n O O O H
O H
(BGE) Pd / C / H 2 DCM / EtOH (2:1) m Scheme 29.10 Synthetic strategy to synthesizing amphiphilic ferrocene-containing block copolymers (PVFc-BGE-PEO) and AB 2 miktoarm star polymers (PVFc-(PEO) 2 ). Fe H Si
R R
n Fe H Si n-Bu R R ′ n E E ′ Scheme 29.11 Polyferrocenyldimethylsilanes. In water, these polymers generate micelles and multicompartment micellar structures, which are promising materials for bioorganometallic applications [164, 165]. Another interesting contribution to this field from Manners et al. [166] was the synthesis, characterization, and behavior study of new polyferrocenyldimethylsilanes that were obtained by metalation of the cyclopentadienyl groups of polyferrocenyldimethylsilane (Scheme 29.11), which was performed by reaction with the base pair
BuLi/KO
t Bu in
tetrahydrofuran (THF). Subsequent treatment with a series of electrophiles affords a range of Cp-substituted polymers with up to an average of 1.8 new substituents per repeating unit with selective metalation at the β-carbon. Polymers with high degrees of substitution (up to nearly one per Cp) were prepared when a greater excess of bases was used. The loss of crystallinity, solubility in alkanes and the dramatic rise in glass-transition temperatures of the silylated polyferrocenylsilanes illustrate how substitution of the Cp ring can lead to materials with properties that greatly differ from those of the original polymer. The controlled bottom-up fabrication of nanomaterials with well-defined but complex architectures [167–173] can be achieved by preparing the samples as colloidal stable entities. Cylindrical micelles [174, 175] obtained from the solution self-assembly of block copolymers have found use as additives for the enhancement of the toughness of epoxy resins [176], as templates for the mineralization of hydroxyapatite [177], the formation of metal nanoparticles [178–181], as |
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