Chemistry and catalysis advances in organometallic chemistry and catalysis
ORGANOMETALLIC NANOPARTICLES (a) (b) Figure 31.2
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- 31.3.1 Nitrogen-Donor Ligands 31.3.1.1 Long Alkyl Chain Amines
- 31.3.1.2 Phenyl Pyridine
- 31.3.2 Phosphorus-Containing Ligands 31.3.2.1 Simple Mono- and Diphosphines
- 31.3.2.2 Diphosphites
- 31.3.3 N-Heterocyclic Carbene ligands
- Figure 31.6
424 ORGANOMETALLIC NANOPARTICLES (a) (b)
Figure 31.2 Polycrystalline “sponge-like” Ru nanoparticles obtained (a) in pure methanol and (b) in a 10 : 90 mixture of methanol and THF. to that of a C–H bond, these RuNPs will behave, in terms of solubility, like large, saturated organic molecules which is counterintuitive. Since ionic liquids (ILs) are known in catalysis for providing more environmentally friendly conditions than usual solvents, their use is emerging as an alternative for the synthesis and stabilization of MNPs of interest in nanocatalysis [20]. ILs play a double role, acting as both the solvent and the stabilizer. The segregation between polar and nonpolar domains in imidazolium-based ILs has a strong influence on their solvatation and ability to interact with different species [21]. After the work of Dupont et al. [22] we investigated in collaboration with Santini et al. [23–27], the synthesis of RuNPs to gain further knowledge on the way ionic liquids stabilize MNPs. The synthesis of RuNPs was first performed in 1-butyl-3- methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (BMImNTf 2 or [RMIm][NTf 2 ] with R
= C 4 H 9 ) to study the influence of temperature and stirring on the NPs formed [23]. The NPs were prepared by the decomposition of [Ru(COD)(COT)] under 4 bar of H 2 at various reaction temperature (0 and 25 ◦ C), leading to a mean size of 2.4 ± 0.3 nm at 25 ◦ C and 1.1 ± 0.2 nm at 0 ◦ C in the absence of stirring. As an explanation for this size difference, it was proposed that the size of RuNPs is governed by the size of the nonpolar domains. This hypothesis was further confirmed by using as reaction medium a series of various imidazolium-derived ionic liquids, namely: [RMIm][NTf 2 ] (R = C n H
+1 with n = 2, 4, 6, 8, 10) and [R 2 Im][NTf 2 ] (R
= Bu) to perform the synthesis of RuNPs, under 4 bar of H 2 at 25 or 0 ◦ C with or without stirring [24]. For the IL [RMIm][NTf 2 ]
= C n H 2n + 1 with n = 4, 6, 8), a linear correlation between the size of RuNPs generated in situ and the length of the alkyl chain of the IL was established. The use of spectroscopic methods and labeling experiments developed in another context [14, 28] with RuNPs prepared in IL allowed confirming the presence of hydrides on the surface of the NPs [25].
Ligand coordination on NPs is similar to that in molecular complexes, in particular for the order of bond energy as a function of the nature of the binding function. The presence of these ligands prevents the particles from aggregation and allows their solubilization. 31.3.1 Nitrogen-Donor Ligands 31.3.1.1 Long Alkyl Chain Amines Amines can act both as reducing agents and as stabilizers thanks to a σ -type coordination mode to the metallic surface [29]. When hexadecyl- and dodecylamine are employed as stabilizers, elongated NPs are obtained, the size of which is dependent upon the molar ratio Ru : L (in all cases the sizes are found between 1.8 and 2.6 nm with a broad size distribution) and which show a tendency to agglomerate when higher amounts of ligands are employed and when the concentration of the solution is increased (Fig. 31.3) [16].
LIGAND-STABILIZED RUTHENIUM NANOPARTICLES 425 Figure 31.3 RuNPs stabilized with 0.2 equiv of hexadecylamine. This lack of control results from a weak coordination of the ligand as evidenced by liquid 1 H and 13 C NMR, which demonstrates the presence of a fast equilibrium between the free ligand and the ligand coordinated to the surface of the NPs at the NMR timescale. The wormlike shape observed may then result from an oriented attachment process of the initial NPs. Interestingly, on the NMR spectra registered for the NPs stabilized with hexadecylamine (0.2 equiv), the signals corresponding to the carbons located in the α, β, and γ positions relative to the amino group are not visible because of a very short T 2 resulting from the slow tumbling of the particles in solution due to their large size. 31.3.1.2 Phenyl Pyridine The unusual 4-(3-phenylpropenyl)pyridine ligand was chosen for its simple structure containing a pyridine group, which, upon σ -coordination, can favor the flat phenyl approach to the metallic surface [30]. Homogeneously dispersed NPs showing a very narrow size distribution around a mean diameter of 1.3 ± 0.3 nm were obtained using the standard procedure. This result contrasted with the formation of large and agglomerated particles that were observed otherwise using simple pyridines as stabilizers, in agreement with previous reports concerning gold particles containing pyridine [31]. 13 C CP-MAS (cross-polarization magic angle spinning) NMR and D MAS NMR experiments on RuNPs after treatment under deuterium atmosphere and substitution by stronger ligands (dodecanethiol) confirmed the π-coordination of both the phenyl and the pyridyl rings as a novel type of bidentate ligand.
RuNPs were prepared from [Ru(COD)(COT)] and 0.1 equiv of the corresponding diphosphine (1,4-bis(diphenylphosphino)butane (dppb) and 1,10-bis(diphenylphosphino)decane (dppd)) [28], in THF under 3 bar of dihydrogen at room temperature. Stable, crystalline, and monodispersed hcp NPs of mean size 1.5 (dppb) and 1.9 nm (dppd) were obtained. The presence of the ligand at the surface of the NPs was confirmed by solution 31 P NMR after releasing the oxidized phosphine upon addition of H 2 O 2 to the NPs and by MAS 31 P NMR. A quantification of the hydrides present at the surface of the Ru/dppd particles was performed by titration with an olefin, leading to a reproducible value of 1.1 hydrides by surface ruthenium atom against 1.3 for both Ru/hexadecylamine (HDA) and Ru/PVP. The surface state of the dppb-stabilized RuNPs was investigated using 13 CO as probe molecule, and IR and MAS NMR techniques [17]. These studies have demonstrated that, in contrast to the case of 13 CO adsorbed on Ru/PVP NPs, the CO ligands are not fluxional and this is obviously related to the presence of the ancillary phosphine ligands at the surface of the RuNPs. The presence of a bridging terminal and multicarbonyl group is hence evidenced. 426 ORGANOMETALLIC NANOPARTICLES Similar studies carried out with labeled ethylene have demonstrated, quite unexpectedly, the breaking of the C–C bond to produce methyl groups firmly attached to the surface [28]. These results demonstrate the interest in spectroscopic methods for monitoring the reactivity of metal nanoparticles. An important issue of this chemistry is to determine whether these ancillary phosphine ligands may influence the reactivity of the resulting NPs and how. In this respect, in a collaborative work with the group of van Leeuwen [32], the design of new roof-shaped phosphine ligands for the stabilization of RuNPs and their application as catalysts in hydrogenation of aromatics have been investigated (Fig. 31.4). Different M/L (M = Ru and L = phosphine) ratios were explored and in all cases, RuNPs of mean size between 1.1 and 2.1 nm were formed. 31 P-HRMAS NMR confirmed the coordination of the triarylphosphines, dialkylphosphines, or trialkylphosphines at the surface of the particles, but also indicated the partial or total hydrogenation of the substituents resulting from the NP synthesis. This phenomenon had previously been observed with simple diphosphine ligands [28]. The resulting NPs are active in the hydrogenation of o-methylanisol, with a clear influence of the nature of the ligands on the catalytic performances. It was found that colloids containing triarylphosphines are not or only very poorly active, while colloids containing dialkylarylphosphines lead to the full hydrogenation of the substrate. This work points out the interest of designing appropriate ligands to tune the catalytic properties of the particles. 31.3.2.2 Diphosphites The question of the possibility of asymmetric catalysis led us to search for ligands specific to NPs. Following previous studies concerning diphosphite-stabilized PdNPs which gave rise to interesting and intriguing results in Heck-coupling reactions [33] in collaboration with the groups of Castillon, Claver, and Roucoux, we carried out the synthesis of RuNPs using carbohydrate-based diphosphites for their application as catalysts in the hydrogenation of anisole derivatives [34]. The NPs were prepared as usual from [Ru(COD)(COD)] and a ligand/Ru ratio of 1 : 0.1 as for diphosphines. Different diphosphite ligands (Fig. 31.5) were employed with the objective to analyze the influence of their structure on the characteristics of the NPs as well as on their catalytic activity. TEM analysis of the obtained colloids showed the formation of RuNPs of mean size between 1 and 4 nm, depending on the diphosphite used. These particles were tested as nanocatalysts in the hydrogenation of o- and m-methyl anisoles. In pentane, the particles’ activity was found to be ligand dependent. Thus the more flexible ligand containing one carbon O O PPh 2 Ph 2 P O O H H Ph 2 P PPh 2 O O H H Ph 2 P O O PR 2 PR 2 1 3 R = Ph, 2 R = Cy, 5
Ligands used as stabilizers for the Ru nanoparticles. O O
O O O O O
Bu
Bu
Bu
Bu
Bu
Bu
b (RO)
2 = (RO) 2 PO (RO) 2 PO OP(OR) 2 OP(OR)
2 O n C 14 H 29 (RO)
2 =
2 Figure 31.5 Carbohydrate-based diphosphites used as ligands for the synthesis of the ruthenium nanoparticles. LIGAND-STABILIZED RUTHENIUM NANOPARTICLES 427 between the aromatic rings displays a better activity. The introduction of a long lipophilic chain in the ligand increased further the activity of the particles as a result of several factors including smaller mean particle size and higher solubility in pentane. In all cases, the cis product was formed, in contrast to the results obtained when oxazoline-stabilized RuNPs were investigated in the same catalytic reaction.
N-Heterocyclic carbene ligands (NHCs) are, in molecular chemistry, strongly associated with ruthenium since the work of Grubbs on metathesis. However, these ligands had not been used for the stabilization of NPs. It was, therefore, of interest, after a comprehensive study of phosphine coordination on NPs, to study the interaction between RuNPs and NHCs [35]. The RuNPs were prepared by the decomposition of [Ru(COD)(COT)] in pentane, under dihydrogen atmosphere (3 bar) at room temperature, and in the presence of two different carbenes as stabilizing agents, namely, 1,3-bis(2,6- diisopropylphenyl)imidazol-2-ylidene (IPr) and N,N-di(tert-butyl)imidazol-2-ylidene (I
Bu), shown in Fig. 31.6. Different colloids have been obtained depending on the amount and the type of the carbene. RuNPs of mean size 1.7 nm were formed by employing 0.2 equiv of IPr (Fig. 31.7) or 0.5 equiv of I t Bu and of 1.5 nm mean size in the presence of 0.5 equiv of IPr. In all cases, these NPs were homogeneous in size and shape and presented the expected hcp structure, as demonstrated by WAXS analysis. To study the coordination of the carbenes to the surface of the RuNPs by infrared (IR) and NMR spectroscopies, the synthesis of the Ru NPs was performed using NHCs 13 C-labeled in the carbene position. The characterization of these particles by MAS NMR allowed the detection of the signals of the carbene bonded to the surface of the NPs, which resonates in the region between 195 and 205 ppm (depending on the type and amount of stabilizer employed). To probe the free sites at their surface, NHC-stabilized RuNPs were reacted with CO. In the case of the NPs prepared using 0.5 equiv of I t Bu, CO is present predominantly in the bridging mode. The same coordination mode is observed when the CO is added to the colloid prepared using 0.2 equiv of IPr. In contrast, no bridging CO is detected when the addition of this probe molecule is performed on the colloid prepared using 0.5 equiv of IPr. In this case, CO is present in linear and multicarbonyl modes. From these results, the location of the different carbene ligands on the surface of the NPs N N t Bu
Bu N
I t Bu IPr Figure 31.6 NHCs employed as stabilizers for the RuNPs. Figure 31.7 Space-filling model of a 1.8 nm hcp Ru nanoparticle stabilized by 8 IPr NHC ligands and accommodating 1.5 hydrides per surface Ru. Adapted from Reference 6e.
428 ORGANOMETALLIC NANOPARTICLES could be proposed. In the case of the NPs prepared using 0.5 equiv of I
Bu or 0.2 equiv of IPr, CO is located on the faces, indicating that the ligand is located on edges and apexes. In contrast, for NPs prepared with 0.5 equiv of IPr, the absence of bridging CO is in agreement with the presence of ligand all over the particles. These carbene-stabilized RuNPs have also been tested as catalysts in the hydrogenation of styrene under mild conditions. This study evidenced a moderate activity, and, as expected with RuNPs, a full hydrogenation of the vinyl bond is first observed followed by the hydrogenation of the aromatic ring.
Iron NPs are promising candidates for a wide range of applications, from magnetic data storage to chemical or biomedical uses such as contrast agents for sensitive magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or efficient heater media for magnetic fluid hyperthermia (MFH) [36, 37]. Iron indeed combines a high saturation magnetization (M S ) at room temperature (212 A/(m 2 kg)) and a presumably low toxicity. Nevertheless, to achieve optimum operation conditions, these NPs should have well- controlled magnetic properties and biological functionalities, which are strongly dependent on the surface states, sizes and shapes of the NPs. Thus, a strict control of the NP synthesis is required. A widely used approach to Fe NP preparation consists in thermal decomposition of Fe(CO) 5 in the presence of long- chain surfactants [38] The NP size can be tuned from 4 to 20 nm by controlling the reaction parameters (time, temperature, surfactant concentration [39]) or by using a seed-mediated growth [40]. However, the magnetic properties of these NPs are usually degraded compared to bulk values because of the presence of an oxide shell around the NP surface [41]. Iron salts were also proposed to produce high-moment Fe NPs, although this implies harsh reaction conditions such as strong reducing agents or high temperatures. FeCl 2 can be reduced with sodium borohydride, but boron contamination has been found to decrease the NP magnetic moment [42] In order to avoid such surface contaminations and their drastic effects on magnetic properties, an organometallic approach could be advantageous since controlled decomposition under mild conditions can be achieved. Through intensive prospective work, we determined that amido precursors such as Fe[N(SiMe 3 )
] 2 (THF) (Me = CH 3 , THF = tetrahydrofurane) [43] or the dimer {Fe[N(SiMe 3 ) 2 ] 2 } 2 [44] can yield unoxidized iron metal nanoparticles (MNPs) under mild conditions. These precursors exhibit a good compromise between stability (to be stored once prepared) and reactivity( to be decomposed under mild and reductive conditions). To demonstrate the relevance of the precursor choice, ultrasmall Fe NPs (
decomposing the dimer in mesitylene solvent under 3 bars of H 2 at 150
◦ C [45]. This demonstrates that HN[Si(CH 3 )
] 2 or some of its derivatives released during the synthesis are able to stabilize the NP surface. Furthermore, these NPs exhibit a magnetization close to the bulk value, or even enhanced, compared to that in the presence of the polymer PPO (poly(2,6- dimethyl-1,4-phenyleneoxide)) [46]. The magnetic properties of ultrasmall NPs being drastically affected by pollutants, one can conclude that the by-products of the precursor reduction do not alter the surface states. In addition, these NPs were tested as catalysts and found active inter alia for alkene hydrogenation. In order to grow larger NPs, displaying a higher potential for further applications, mixtures of long-chain surfactants—amine/acid or amine/ammonium— were added to the reaction. Iron nanocubes of 7 nm were prepared in this way by decomposing Fe[N(SiMe 3 )
] 2 (THF) under H 2 at 150
◦ C in mesitylene in the presence of a mixture of HDA and oleic acid or hexadecylammonium chloride. These objects exhibited bulk magnetization and self-organized into cubic superlattices, as shown in Fig. 31.8 [47]. These unoxidized Fe NPs and their tendency to form superlattices were an unprecedented result, which opened new perspectives for unique transport measurement on macroscopic but nanotextured objects [48, 49] In order to understand and, possibly, propose a model for the size and shape control of iron NPs prepared in the presence of such surfactant mixtures, a systematic study was performed on the decomposition of {Fe[N(SiMe 3 ) 2 ] 2 } 2 in the presence of HDA and palmitic acid (PA) under mild conditions [50]. Acid concentration is a key parameter to tune the final mean size of the Fe NPs between 1.5 and 21 nm (Fig. 31.9a). This size increase is concomitant with the modification of the NPs shapes (Fig. 31.9b,c): spherical below 1.4 equiv acid per mol of iron atoms (equiv) and cubic above this value. Such shape control can be understood in the framework of an environmentally dependent growth process. We observed the presence of organic superstructures filled with iron(II) species, containing carboxylates, at the very beginning of the reaction for large acid concentration (above 1.4 equiv), fairly similar to the superstructure of the cubes finally obtained (Fig. 31.10a– d). Based on a combined morphologic, magnetic and spectroscopic study of the reaction advancement, we proposed that the nucleation and growth can occur either outside these organic soft templates, i.e., in an isotropic environment, or inside them,
COBALT 429 0 0 20 40 Number of cubes 60 80 5 Edge (nm) 10 15 Dm = 8,4 +/- 1,6 nm 10 nm
(020) (a)
(b) (c)
β = 45° α = 90° 1.45 Å
1.01 Å 2.03
Å Figure 31.8 (a) Transmission electron microscopy images of 7 nm nanocubes self-organized into cubic superlattices. (b) Electron diffraction pattern revealing base-centered cubic (bcc) structure of Fe(0) and the selective orientation of the nanocubes. (c) 2D assemblies obtained after dissolution of the super lattices. that is, in an anisotropic environment (Fig. 31.10e). In the first case, we obtain spherical polycrystalline NPs of mean sizes increasing with the carboxylic acid concentration, as expected. In the second case, the reaction monitoring reveals several steps: (i) nucleation (ii) growth and coalescence favored by an amine-rich environment followed by (iii) growth and repair mechanisms in an acid-rich environment. These three main steps lead to cubic NPs organized into superstructures. The evolution of the environment from amine- to acid-rich is directly related to the decomposition of the iron(II) species that releases carboxylic acid in the medium. Tuning the growth/coalescence steps by decreasing the reaction temperature (down to 120 ◦ C) or by changing the mixture of surfactant used (dodecylamine/lauric acid) yielded NPs with unique features such as anisotropic stars [50] (Fig. 31.11a) or porous nanocubes, as revealed by electron tomography [51] (Fig. 31.11b– d). In addition to their unique control of size and shapes, Fe NPs synthesized by this organometallic approach exhibit excellent magnetic properties. Magnetic vortex, a peculiar state which that at the transition between monodomain and multidomain configurations, has been for the first time evidenced in 30 nm Fe nanocubes by electron holography [52]. Magnetic interaction between self-assembled nanocubes usually leads to the disappearance of such vortices because of strong coupling. However, the presence of pores embedded within cubes could stabilize the vortices in assemblies of a few cubes [51], opening new a perspective toward spintronic applications (Fig. 31.12). The drawback of the use of iron NPs is their air sensitivity. In an effort to combine good magnetic properties with air stability, we considered iron carbides. Theses phases form readily when iron is in the presence of a carbon source at high temperature, or at lower temperature under the conditions of the Fischer–Tropsch syntheses, namely in the presence of CO and H
2 at temperatures between 200 and 300 ◦ C. Prior to our work no synthesis of monodisperse iron carbide NPs had been described. Addition of Fe(CO) 5 to preformed monodisperse iron NPs leads, depending on the gas atmosphere to iron carbide or core–shell iron/iron carbide NPs [53]. These particles were found to display excellent magnetic properties and to be stable in air after an initial period presumably corresponding to some surface oxidation. 2> Download 11.05 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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