Chemistry and catalysis advances in organometallic chemistry and catalysis
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Figure 38.4 The molecular structures of mononuclear zinc porphyrin dyes (a), Ru–Ru (b), and Ru–Os (c) binuclear complexes containing the bridging ligand 3,5-bis-(pyridin-2-yl)-1,2,4-triazole. Metal complex dyes have given better results than organic dyes because of their excellent stability toward photodegradation. As the first DSSC was made 20 years ago [6], a lot of research has been carried out to find alternative transition-metal complexes, as well as natural or organic dyes, but none has been found that is able to match the performance of the ruthenium complexes with respect to conversion yield, durability, or long-term stability [46]. However, recently, using cosensitization of zinc porphyrin dye (Fig. 38.4a) [9] with another organic dye as sensitizer, an overall DSSC conversion efficiency greater than 12.3% has been obtained [9].
The photovoltaic performance of DSSC can be analyzed in terms of conversion yield and long-term stability. For metal complex-based DSSCs, the polypyridyl complexes of ruthenium and osmium are known to fulfill both criteria [29]. After the solar cell has been fabricated, it has to be evaluated for a number of parameters such as IPCE (or quantum efficiency), I sc (short-circuit current), V oc (open-circuit voltage), FF (fill factor), and η (power conversion efficiency), which provide performance information for real-world applications. These DSSC parameters can be determined using a solar light simulator. The fill factor can assume values between 0 and less than 1 and is defined by the ratio of the maximum power (P max
) of the solar cell per unit area divided by the V oc and J sc according to [7] FF =
max I sc V oc . Once the these parameters are determined, the overall solar-to-electrical energy conversion efficiency, η, for a solar cell is given by the photocurrent density measured at short circuit (J sc ), the open-circuit photovoltage (V oc ), the fill factor of the cell (FF), and the intensity of the incident light (P in ) [7]. η = I sc V ov FF P in . The maximum power is obtained as the product of the photocurrent and photovoltage at the voltage where the power output of the cell is maximal. 38.6 RESEARCH DEVELOPMENT ON METAL COMPLEXES FOR DYE-SENSITIZED SOLAR CELLS Current DSSC research focuses on performance by considering different component issues such as metal complexes, redox mediators, counter electrodes, and semiconductor films. The most important issues relate to stability, improving dye regeneration times using dyes by redox mediators, and the design of new dyes with wide range of absorption spectrum. THE INTERACTION AND THE BINDING MODE OF DYES ON TIO 2 SURFACE 509 The choice of metal complex dyes as sensitizers must meet certain requirements: (i) they must be firmly grafted to the semiconductor oxide surface and inject electrons into the conduction band with a quantum yield of unity, (ii) their redox potential should be sufficiently high so that it can be regenerated rapidly via electron donation from the electrolyte or a hole conductor, and (iii) they should be stable enough to sustain at least 10 8 redox turnovers under illumination corresponding to about 20 years of exposure to natural sunlight, and so on [10, 11, 29, 34]. In addition, the optimal sensitizer for the DSSC should be panchromatic with all photons below a threshold wavelength of about 920 nm being harvested and converted to electric current [29]. Although several requirements have to be fulfilled by the dye, the molecular engineering of ruthenium complexes that can act as panchromatic charge transfer sensitizers for TiO 2 -based solar cells presents a series of challenges that are very difficult to address simultaneously. The LUMO and HOMO positions of the dye have to be maintained at levels where photoexcited electron transfer in the TiO 2 conduction band and regeneration of the dye by iodide can take place to give a near 100% yield [11]. This restricts greatly the options available to accomplish the desired redshift of the MLCT transitions to about 900 nm. Therefore, the existing research in dye chemistry is devoted to the identification and synthesis of dyes matching these requirements, while retaining stability in the photoelectrochemical environment [32, 47]. The molecular design of new sensitizers for nanocrystalline TiO 2 solar cells that can absorb all solar radiation thus remains a challenging task. Moreover, whether iodine regenerates the dye practically at 100% yield is another challenge [48]. The synthesis of a series of ruthenium polypyridyl complexes allowing the systematic tuning of the LUMO sensitizer for easy injection of the excited electrons to the semiconductor oxide and HOMO energy level of the sensitizer for efficient dye regeneration has been reported in the literature [49]. The possibility of tuning the MLCT energy has led to the preparation of many different organocompounds that have been investigated for semiconductor sensitization.
Metal complexes used as sensitizers for DSSC have two ligands specifically: ancillary and anchoring. Ancillary ligands are important for tuning the complexes’ overall properties, whereas anchoring ligands are required for complex adsorption on the semiconductor’s surface. Most of the dyes employed in DSSCs have either carboxylic acid or phosphonate groups to anchor them on the surface of semiconductor film electrode to enable electron injection into the conduction band of the semiconductor [7, 34]. When the sensitizer is chemically bound to TiO 2 by esterification, the protons of the anchoring group (carboxylic acid, phosphonic acid) are partly transferred to the surface of TiO 2 . The attachment group of the dye ensures that it spontaneously assembles as a molecular layer upon immersing the oxide film to a dye solution. It is now known that an electron passes from the dye molecule through the bridging carboxylate group to the semiconductor substrate within picoseconds, that is, faster than competing recombination processes. The surface composition, the coordination geometry, the type and number of functional groups, as well as the orientation of the dye on the surface of the TiO 2
cell [50, 51]. The influence of the attaching group and the substitution position on the resulting photosensitization behavior of Ru polypyridyl complexes has been reported [52]. The report showed that the steric factor is very important as an influential parameter on the excited-state energy level of the sensitizers and the photoelectrochemical properties of the DSSC [52]. The interaction between two porphyrin ligands with different numbers of carboxyl groups and TiO 2 has been determined by UV–vis and IR spectra [50]. From the IR result, both of the porphyrin ligands adsorb by bridging or bidentate chelate coordination on the TiO 2 surface. Although, there is no difference in the luminescence spectra of the two porphyrins, the variation in the number of carboxyl groups has an influence on the fluorescence spectra of the adsorbed TiO 2 electrode and UV–vis adsorption behavior on the TiO 2 electrode’s surface [50]. The photoelectrochemical properties of the cell such as the IPCE and the light-to-electrical conversion efficiency of the porphyrin-sensitized solar cell are influenced by the number of functional groups [50]. In another study, the binding states between the dye and TiO 2 surface were compared with the energy conversion efficiency in a DSSC and indicated that the binding state and the amount of adsorbed dye are important factors affecting the performance of DSSCs [51]. The relationship between the charge transfer from Ru–metal complexes to TiO 2 films with different synthesis temperatures of the TiO 2 films has been studied by Raman spectroscopy and the results correlated with the conversion efficiency of DSSC [14]. At a synthesis temperature of 190 ◦ C for the TiO 2 nanoparticles, the surface of the TiO 2
bands and efficient charge transfer between the N3 dye and the TiO 2 substrate, resulting in the highest efficiency of DSSC [14]. 510 ORGANOMETALLIC COMPOUNDS FOR DYE-SENSITIZED SOLAR CELLS (DSSC) 38.8 METAL COMPLEXES AS REDOX MEDIATORS FOR DSSC Recently, metal complexes, for example, cobalt-based complexes have been used as redox couples for DSSCs [53]. Cobalt complexes have negligible absorption in the visible region of the solar spectrum, while their redox properties can be tuned in a controlled fashion by selecting suitable donor/acceptor substituents on the ligand [53]. This approach offers an attractive alternate to the traditional I 3 − /I − redox shuttle used in DSSCs. A cobalt complex using tridendate ligands [Co(bpy-pz) 2 ] 3 +/2+ (PF
6 ) 3/2 as redox mediator in combination with a cyclopentadithiophene-bridged donor–acceptor dye (Y123), adsorbed on TiO
2 , yielded an open-circuit voltage of over 1000 mV and a power conversion efficiency of over 10% at 100 mW/cm 2 [53].
38.9 CONCLUSION DSSCs will remain at the center of ongoing research effort to utilize clean and renewable solar energy, because the technology is an inexpensive and promising alternative to the proven solid-state photovoltaic cells. Among the various metal complexes, ruthenium complexes continue to receive particular interest as photosensitizers in DSSC application because of their favorable photoelectrochemical properties and high stability in the oxidized state, making practical applications feasible. Other metal complexes such Re, Pt, Cu, Os, and others have been proved to be useful as sensitizers for DSSCs. Ru and Zn metal-based complexes, used as dyes for DSSCs, can give conversion efficiencies over 11% [9, 10]. The absorption of incident light by metal complexes can be improved by manipulating their molecular structures. Current research related to metal complexes as dyes focuses on issues such as stability and the design of new dyes with wide absorption spectra, the fast regeneration of dyes by redox mediators, and the interaction of dyes with semiconductor films. Several studies report that dye/surface interactions influence the injection of excited electrons, thus opening another route to enhancing the performance of DSSCs.
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Angela Dibenedetto CIRCC, University of Bari, Bari, Italy; Department of Chemistry, University of Bari, Bari, Italy 39.1 INTRODUCTION Nature is not able to buffer anthropogenic carbon dioxide (30 Gt/y), although it amounts to only a small percentage of the total carbon dioxide (circa 750 Gt/y) involved in the natural cycle. The parallel trend existing for the “growth of population-
” [1], is raising serious concerns about the future of our planet with regard to the potential effects of climate change that may generate the occurrence of extreme events that are out of human control. Scientists and technologists are much involved in identifying remedies that may stabilize the actual concentration of CO 2 in the atmosphere or even reduce it to lower values [2]. The capture of CO 2 from point sources (industry and power plants) or from the atmosphere has attracted much attention. Captured CO 2 can either be disposed in natural sites (capture of CO 2 and storage, CCS) or used in technological applications (Table 39.1, right side) or in chemical processes (Table 39.1 left side) (carbon dioxide capture and utilization, CCU), or else used in enhanced (industrial conditions) biological fixation (microalgae). Actually, the conversion of CO 2 into other chemicals (170 Mt/year) is the major application of CO 2 , much larger than CCS (only a few megatons in four experimental fields). CCU has a distinct advantage over CCS, because it produces added value products and thus has economic benefits. From the energy point of view, the conversion of CO 2 will require an amount of energy that depends on how far down we can push the oxidation state of carbon from the value it has in CO 2 , that is, 4 (Scheme 39.1). Conversely, CCS will anyway require energy and the amount will depend on the distance of the storage site from the source and the depth of the storage site. In this article, we wish discuss what has been possible in the past and the future expectations for CO 2 conversion, also touching upon the short-term possibilities we have of maximizing the conversion of “exhaust carbon” into “working carbon.” Advances in Organometallic Chemistry and Catalysis: The Silver/Gold Jubilee International Conference on Organometallic Chemistry Celebratory Book, First Edition. Edited by Armando J. L. Pombeiro. © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
514 SYNTHETIC PHOTOSYNTHESIS FOR THE CONVERSION OF LARGE VOLUMES OF CARBON DIOXIDE TABLE 39.1 Carbon Dioxide Utilization Chemical Processes (circa 170 Mt/y) Technological Utilization (circa 28 Mt/y) Urea
Mechanical industry (molding) Salycilic acid Fire estinguishers Methanol (with syngas) Air conditioning Inorganic carbonates Additive to beverages Organic carbonates (cyclic) Water treatment Cereal preservation (bactericide) Food packaging/conservation Dry washing Extraction (fragrances and EOR) −600
−5 −4 −2 0 2 4
−400 −300
−200 −100
0 100
200 CH 4 (g) (NH
2 ) 2 CO(s) CH 3 OH(1) HCN(1)
CO(g) CO 2 (g) CO 3 2 − (aq) Δ G f (kJ/mol) Download 11.05 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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