Chemistry and catalysis advances in organometallic chemistry and catalysis
THE FUTURE: SYNTHETIC PHOTOSYNTHESIS
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- TABLE 39.5 Electrodes and Products of Reduction of CO 2 in Water
- Figure 39.6
- TABLE 39.6 Energetics of Reduction of CO 2
- 39.4.1 Photoelectrochemical Reduction of CO 2
39.4 THE FUTURE: SYNTHETIC PHOTOSYNTHESIS The real breakthrough in cycling CO 2 or recycling C will be represented by the development of synthetic photochemical processes based on the use of solar energy for converting CO 2 and water into chemicals, fuels, and O 2 . (Eq. 39.9) CO 2
2 O + Solar energy → HCs, CH x O y , CO, . . . + O 2 (39.9) TABLE 39.5 Electrodes and Products of Reduction of CO 2 in Water Electrodes Products Cu C 2 H 4 (32–80%) Zn, Au, Ag, p-InP, p-GaAs, C
H 2n +2 Pt-Pd-Rh
CO RuO
x on conductive CO + HCOOH
diamond, B-doped-C MeOH, EtOH, C n H 2n +1 OH
THE FUTURE: SYNTHETIC PHOTOSYNTHESIS 521 h ν *P D M ox H 2 O P D M ox Photon capture/absorption Charge separation Charge transfer
“C1 or C1+” Energy
storage CO 2 P D + M red
P − D + M ox O 2
Constitutional elements of a device for the photochemical reduction of CO 2 in water under solar light irradiation. (See insert for color representation of the figure.) This process has an unlimited capacity for CO 2 conversion. With respect to the use of PV or wind, it should guarantee lower space occupancy and a higher capacity of conversion per unit surface. Several different systems have been used to this end: homogeneous-, heterogenized-, and heterogeneous-metal systems, or colloids. The building elements of the device necessary for the conversion of solar light into chemical energy are well known: systems for photon capture, photosensitizers, charge separation (hole + electrons), electron transfer, reduction of CO 2 , and oxidation of water (Fig. 39.3). The mode of action of such systems is the following: the photosensitizer (P) absorbs radiation (UV–vis) and generates an excited state (P*) that is quenched by an electron donor (D) (amines are used in model systems, H 2 O has to be used in applications) generating a mononegative photosensitizer (P − ) and the oxidized donor (D ·+ ) (water will produce oxygen). P −
ox ) and generate its reduced form (M red
). If the catalyst is able to strongly absorb solar light, it will not be necessary to use a photosensitizer: the catalyst will play both roles—[Ru(dipy) 3 ]
+ is an example [19]. Commonly, Ni and Co stabilized by polydentate N-ligands, and Ru, Fe, or Re stabilized by di- or polypyridine, corrins, porphyrines, and phtalocyanines ligands are used in homogeneous systems [20–22]. M red binds CO
2 that is converted into the products, the nature of which depends on the catalyst used. M ox is regenerated and the cycle starts again. In the natural system (that synthetic photosynthesis must repeat), the net reaction is the transfer of electrons and protons from water to CO 2 with production of reduced forms of the latter and oxygen. In model studies, amines are converted into their oxidized forms that have no practical application: the use of such sacrificial donors represents an economic loss as amines have a higher value than any of the reduced forms of CO 2 that can be obtained using photochemical processes. Using water, oxygen is formed that can be collected and put on the market, substituting that recovered from the atmosphere by air distillation, the latter being an energy-intensive process. How close is such system to a natural photosynthetic process? As often “artificial photosynthesis” and “artificial leaf” are used as synonyms, a question may be asked: will synthetic systems fully mimic what happens in a “leaf?” To answer such question, let us make a brief incursion into the biological world. Four major pathways are used in nature for the conversion of CO 2 , namely [23], 1. the Calvin cycle, 2. the acetyl-CoA pathway, 3. the 3-hydroxypropionate pathway, 4. the reductive tricarboxylic acid cycle. Autotrophic organisms (that use CO 2 trapped from the atmosphere as the source of carbon) can be divided into two categories according to the source of energy they use. Chemoautotrophs, in the reduction of CO 2 , use electrons generally derived from inorganic (mineral) sources, such as hydrogen, H 2 S, elemental sulfur, metal ions (Fe 2 + , Mn 2 + ), ammonia, or nitrite, often (but not always) involving oxidation with O 2 . Most of these organisms live in dark, extreme environments. Such fixation of CO 2 is often reported as chemosynthesis. 522 SYNTHETIC PHOTOSYNTHESIS FOR THE CONVERSION OF LARGE VOLUMES OF CARBON DIOXIDE Chloroplast stroma light
light H + H + H + H + H + H + PQ PQH 2 P680
PSII e − e − e − e − H 2 O O 2 PC Plastoquinone Thylakoid lumen Oxygen-evolving complex Plastocyanin b 6
P700 PSI
Fd FNR
Ferredoxin Cytochrome Ferredoxin-NADP reductase NADP
NADPH ADP
P i ATP ATP synthase Figure 39.4 Light-driven processes occurring in a leaf: water is split into 2H + , 1/2O
2 , and 2e
− .
In terrestrial environments, plants and microorganisms are the predominant variety of photoautotrophs, while in aquatic systems, algae and (cyano)bacteria depend on this pathway. The process that occurs in a leaf is shown in Fig. 39.4 and highlighted in the follow-up of this section. The fixation of CO 2 in a leaf takes place with the implication of two processes: a light-driven process (Fig. 39.4) that brings to the formation of O 2 and 2 H + (Eq. 39.10) 2H 2
+ 2NADP + + 2ADP + 2Pi + light = 2NADPH + 2H + + 2ATP + O 2 (39.10)
a light-independent process in which CO 2 is converted (Eq. 39.11), Ribulose-bisphosphate (5-C sugar) + CO 2 (1C) > [6-C intermediate] > 2 × 3 − PGA (39.11) The 6-C intermediate in Eq. 39.11 is the highly unstable 3-keto-2-carboxyarabinitol-1,5-bisphosphate that fast converts into two phosphoglyceric acid (PGA acid) units. Each 3-PGA is then reduced to 3-PGA yde
(phosphoglyceraldehyde), which is finally converted into a C-6. This type of complex process is reported in a very concise form in many textbooks as shown in Eq. 39.12: CO 2 + H 2 O + hν → “CH 2 O” + O 2 (39.12) The process based on polyols, found in the leaves of the so-called C-3 plants, does not precisely correspond to what is depicted in Fig. 39.3. Therefore, while the label “artificial,” “man-made,” or “synthetic photosynthesis” is correct for the photochemical reduction of CO 2 , to speak in terms of “artificial leaf” or “artificial tree” does not at all correspond to the reality. Synthetic photosynthesis, as shown above, will use solar light and photons for generating a charge separation in photoactive materials that may be used to oxidize water and reduce CO 2 to C1, C2, or else C2 + species. It is worth recalling that, as mentioned above, in Nature, the reduction of CO 2 may occur in many different ways, according to the organism in which it takes place. In organisms different from leaves, for example, in some bacteria, the following C1 species are formed as reduction products: HCOOH, CO, H 2 CO, CH
3 OH, CH
4 . Cn species are formed following complex reaction pathways. The conversion of CO 2 into HCOOH is promoted by formatedehydrogenase (F ate DH) enzymes; formaldehydedehydro- genase (F ald
DH) enzymes convert HCOOH into H 2 CO, while alcoholdehydrogenase (ADH) converts H 2 CO into CH 3 OH.
THE FUTURE: SYNTHETIC PHOTOSYNTHESIS 523 These enzymes equally act on more complex molecules bearing the same functionalities (RCOOH → RCHO → RCH 2 OH). CO 2 is converted into CO by the enzyme carbonmonoxide dehydrogenase (CODH) and the tetrahydrofolate (THF) enzyme converts CO 2 into CH 4 through a multistep process. Such pathways are active in bacteria that convert biomass into biogas in nature or in bioreactors [24]. Chemical systems have been shown to mimic nature. For example, the complex (Cy 3 P)
Ni(CO 2 ) when reacted with PhSH (thiophenol) affords “(Cy 3 P) 2 Ni(CO)”very selectively and instantaneously, according to reaction 39.13 that mimics natural systems: two electrons, given by PhSH that is oxidized to diphenyldisulphide, are used in the step. (Cy
3 P ) 2 Ni (CO 2 ) + 2PhSH → “(Cy 3 P
2 Ni (CO)” unstable + PhS-SPh + H 2 O
This type of system is not recyclable as it further reacts with an oxidative addition of PhS-SPh to Ni(0) that is eventually oxidized to Ni(II), becoming the real end e-donor. Recently, the conversion of CO 2 into methanol in water at 300 K has been achieved using the enzymes F ate DH + F ald
DH + ADH (Fig. 39.5). As Fig. 39.5 shows, the conversion takes place in three steps, each requiring two electrons. In each step, 1 mol of NADH is oxidized to NAD + : making the exploitation of such “dream” reaction absolutely not convenient from the economic point of view, unless NAD + is converted back to NADH using cheap means; and the word “cheap” once again means to mimic nature and use solar light. An interesting result was recently obtained by us using modified semiconductors (Fig. 39.6), namely, by using Ru-modified ZnS irradiated at 400nm for reducing NAD + back into NADH. This process coupled with the use of enzymes has completely changed the capacity of use of NADH, making it possible to produce 100 mol of CH 3 OH per mol of NADH as against 1/3 mol of CH 3 OH per mol NADH earlier [25]. In the experiment, aqueous bioglycerol was used as H-donor or reducing agent: glycerol is converted into oxidized forms that may find utilization. This type of hybrid system is quite interesting as it couples the high rate and selectivity of enzymes to the use of inorganic materials for closing the cycle and regenerating the reducing species, namely NADH. The reduction of CO 2 therefore requires 2e − per step. If one uses a semiconductor as a means for converting photons into electrons, one finds that one photon will generate a “hole + e
− ,”that is, a single photon will be able to transfer a single electron to CO 2 with formation of the radical anion “CO 2 − ”. As Table 39.6 shows, the “one-electron” transfer is a high energy process with respect to “2e − ” or “multiple e − ” transfer. It is worthwhile to note that the values given in Table 39.6 are relevant to an aqueous medium. In general, the reduction potential depends on the medium in which the reduction of
Reduction of CO 2 to CH
3 OH with the use of the enzymes F ate DH, F
ald DH, and ADH at room temperature in water. CO 2
3 C-OH
NADH NAD
+ F ato DH F ald DH ADH
e −
+
Oxidized products Bioglycerol
Photochemical conversion of NAD + into NADH using Ru-modified ZnS. 524 SYNTHETIC PHOTOSYNTHESIS FOR THE CONVERSION OF LARGE VOLUMES OF CARBON DIOXIDE TABLE 39.6 Energetics of Reduction of CO 2 Process
Potential, V CO 2 + e − → CO 2 ·−
◦ = −1.90 (−2.10 V in anhydrous media) CO 2 + 2H+ + 2e − → CO + H
2 O
◦ = −0.53
CO 2 + 2H+ + 2e − → HCO
2 H
◦ = −0.61
CO 2 + 6H+ + 6e − → CH
3 OH + H 2 O
◦ = −0.38
CO 2 + 8H+ + 8e − → CH
4 + 2H
2 O
◦ = −0.24
CO 2 occurs—in aqueous media the reduction potential is lower than in anhydrous media, as shown for the single-electron reduction of CO 2 in Table 39.6. Aspects of paramount importance in the photocatalytic reduction of CO 2 to fuels are the kinetics of reaction and the electron transfer, processes in which the catalyst is implied; this requires that the catalyst must have energy levels that match the reduction potential of CO 2 to that of the wanted species [26]. Homogeneous catalysts are particularly suitable for an adaptation to the different potentials required as the properties of the metal system can be quite finely tuned through the ligands. A key point is, thus, to design metal catalysts that may work as close as possible to the thermodynamic conditions, avoiding the high overpotential that often is generated when a direct reduction of CO 2 occurs at an electrode surface. What is also of great importance is the fact that the metal centers may drive the reaction toward a specific product, as discussed above (Table 39.5). Among the products shown, methanol has an important role as it sits on the border for chemicals and fuels, and may have very large markets. Formic acid is an interesting species because in addition to its chemical uses it can perform as a H 2 -vector. In fact, formic acid can be easily converted back to H 2 and CO 2 . Mixtures of H 2 and CO can be used for the synthesis of methanol using existing technologies or as Syngas in the synthesis of gasoline and diesel. Eventually, one of the gases can be added to achieve the best molar ratio. Ethene is very important as it can be used as bulk chemical or monomer for polymers. Not only poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) but also polystyrene (PS) as styrene is made from benzene by alkylation with ethene. Interestingly, ethene, CO, and H 2 are not soluble in water and will spontaneously separate from water, keeping the separation costs low. Therefore, the photochemical reduction of CO 2 requires a careful design and engineering of the device so that the following issues have the correct solution: • systems for the capture of photons; • photosensitizers; • photochemical systems able to produce a “hole + e − ;”
• fast electron transfer for avoiding the backflow of electrons that may cancel the charge separation with generation of heat (the photons would be then converted into heat instead of generating electrical charges); • correct number of junctions that may prevent the backflow of electrons; • correct catalytic sites that may produce the reduced forms of CO 2 and dioxygen working close as possible to the thermodynamic potentials; • separation of reduced carbon from dioxygen for preventing back oxidation of the former. The photochemical reduction of CO 2 is also approached using inorganic materials such as the system developed at the Berkeley Laboratory on Natural and Artificial Photosynthesis that is quite intriguing because it represents a simple system that might have interesting applications (Fig. 39.7). This is not yet the solution, but indicates a way to go. Such systems are tunable, changing the metals implied in the photons uptake and charge transfer, and may allow loading the right catalysts for the reduction– oxidation processes. 39.4.1 Photoelectrochemical Reduction of CO 2 An alternative to the photochemical reduction is the photoelectrochemical reduction. p-Type semiconductor/liquid junctions are extensively studied as PV devices. The p-type semiconducting electrodes can act as photocathodes for photoassisted
CONCLUDING REMARKS 525 O Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si O O Ti O O O
O O O O O O O O 2 H 2 O O O Cr III Ir III Ir IV MMCT e − Visible
light h ν Products
CO 2
Inorganic device for CO 2 and water coprocessing using solar light. CO 2 reduction. Four different schemes of photoassisted reduction of CO 2 using a semiconducting photocathode have been approached: (i) direct heterogeneous CO 2 reduction by a biased semiconductor photocathode [27–35], (ii) heterogeneous CO 2 reduction by metal particles on a biased semiconductor photocathode [36–40], (iii) homogeneous CO 2 reduction by a molecular catalyst through a semiconductor/molecular catalyst junction [41–45], and (iv) heterogeneous CO 2 reduction by a molecular catalyst attached to the semiconductor photocathode surface [46–48]. These have recently been extensively reviewed by Kubiak [49]. While commercial PV electrolyzers have been used for H 2 production [50], only few examples are applied to the conversion of CO 2 [51–53]. In addition, in this case, the systems described in the literature often use a sacrificial donor of the electrons used in the reduction process. For the exploitation of such technology, water should be the source of both the electrons and hydrogen atoms for CO 2 reduction. 39.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS “Synthetic photosynthesis” is a process that may play a key role in the reduction of CO 2 into energy-rich species, either C1 or C2 +. Several approaches are possible to the exploitation of such a concept: • the use of natural photosynthetic microoorganisms for an enhanced CO 2 fixation (microalgae or microorganisms grown under non-natural conditions, namely, high CO 2 concentration); • the use of hybrid systems that combine enzymes and synthetic systems for an accelerated CO 2 fixation. • the use of synthetic systems that may mimic nature and reduce CO 2 in water, namely, photochemical and photoelectrochemical systems. The elements that constitute a man-made system for driving such reactions are well identified. In order that they may be exploited at the industrial level, several key issues have to be resolved, namely, the discovery of efficient systems for solar energy capture, two-photon use for two-electron transfer to CO 2 for an efficient and fast reduction, efficient charge separation systems (multijunctions that prevent the backflow of electrons), efficient catalysts for water oxidation and selective CO 2 reduction, selection of catalysts for a preferable production of non-water-soluble organics from CO 2 for reducing the processing cost for the recovery of energy rich species, use of cheap and naturally abundant compounds for catalyst making, use of recyclable catalytic materials, space separation of oxidation, and reduction processes on the catalysts. The solution of such problems will require time, but all targets may be reached as there is no real (e.g., negative thermodynamics) barrier to doing so. If the development of such devices have the same investments that have been placed on the development of PV cells, it is foreseeable that in 20–30 years from now, the dream “solar-driven conversion of CO 2 into fuels” will come true. |
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