Chemistry and catalysis advances in organometallic chemistry and catalysis
Scheme 39.1 Free energy of formation of C1 species versus oxidation state of carbon. 39.2
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- Scheme 39.4
- TABLE 39.3 Industrial Sources of CO 2 (Other than Power Generation)
- TABLE 39.4 Cost of Production of Hydrogen (1 kg) using Various Technologies
Scheme 39.1 Free energy of formation of C1 species versus oxidation state of carbon. 39.2 THE PAST Syntheses based on the use of CO 2 have been known for over 150 years, the oldest being the Solvay process (1861) for the production of NaHCO 3 and Na 2 CO 3 . This was followed by the synthesis of salicylic acid (1869) [2] (Eq. 39.1). Soon after came the actual largest application of ONa(K) OH
COONa(K) OH + CO 2 + 373 – 430 K 0.1–1.0 MPa CO 2 (39.1) CO 2 , namely, the synthesis of urea (Eq. 39.2), which was discovered in 1870 [3]. CO 2 + 2NH 3 → H
2 NCONH
2 + H
2 O (39.2) The above three applications represent the quasi totality of the CO 2 used in the chemical industry till today. As Table 39.2 shows, additional amounts of CO 2 are used in the synthesis of methanol and some organic carbonates and polymers. THE PAST 515 TABLE 39.2 Present and Short-Term Use of CO 2 Compound
Actual Production CO 2 Used 2016 Forecast CO 2
2020 Forecast CO 2 Used Urea
155 114
180 132
210 154
Methanol 50 8 60 10 80 28 DME
11 .4 3 >20 >5 >30 >7 TBME
30 1 .5 40 3 >40 >3 CH 2 O 21 3 .5 25 5 30 6 Other fuels 10 20 Higher alcohols Hydrocarbons Methane
Carbonates 0 .2 0 .005
>2 0 .5 >10 5 Polycarbonates 4 0 .01 5 1 9–10 2–3 Carbamates 5 .3
>6 1 11 Circa 4 Polyurethans >8 0
0 .5 15 5–10 Acrylates 2 .5
3 .0 1 .5 8 5 Polyacrylates Formic acid 0 .6
1 0 .9 >10 >9 Inorganic carbonates CaCO 3 , 200 Circa 50
250 70 400 100 Soda Solvay 113 .9
50 Total
172 207
332 Technological 28 80
Algae for the production of biodiesel 0 .005 0 .010
1 2 290 522 200
299 1054
−550 −500
−450 −400
−350 Δ
f (kJ/mol)
4 (RO 2
CO 2 (g) CO 3 2 − (aq)
Scheme 39.2 Free energy of CO 2 , inorganic and organic carbonates. It is evident that, in the industrial applications discussed above, CO 2 maintains its +4 oxidation state (or goes to +3), thus requiring only minor, or zero, energy input for its conversion. As a matter of fact, the synthesis of inorganic carbonates is highly exergonic (Scheme 39.2), while the synthesis of organic carbonates has a Gibbs free energy that is either slightly negative or positive, depending on the R group (circle around CO 2 in Scheme 39.2). The conversion into methanol (in such synthesis, CO 2 is used in mixture with CO) is an energy-requiring process and H 2 is the “energy carrier.” The higher consumption of H 2 required by CO 2 (Eq. 39.4) with respect to the use of CO alone (Eq. 39.3) is compensated by a better use of hydrogen and lower overall energy balance per mol of methanol produced [5]. CO + 2H 2 → CH
3 OH (39.3) 516 SYNTHETIC PHOTOSYNTHESIS FOR THE CONVERSION OF LARGE VOLUMES OF CARBON DIOXIDE RO O
ROH O 2 O O O COOR RC CR O O R R RHN
O OR'
RNH 2 +R'X n O O N H H N O O 3 R H 2 N O NH 2 ONa/K NH 3 OH COONa/K O + O O O n O O O (a)
(b) Scheme 39.3 Low energy processes on stream (a) and under study (b). CO 2
2 → CH
3 OH + H 2 O (39.4) Other high energy processes for the conversion of CO 2 have not been developed so far. The simple reason for this is that it does not make sense to use fossil fuels to convert CO 2 , as the process will finally emit more CO 2 than it stores! Therefore, the chemistry developed in the past was based on the reaction of CO 2 with “energy-rich” molecules, such as “electron-rich” species: amines, olefins, dienes, alkynes, and O-compounds. Scheme 39.3 shows the processes on stream (Scheme 39.3a) and those under development in which the co-reagent is the energy carrier (Scheme 39.3b). None of the latter is on stream yet, except the copolymerization of CO 2 and epoxides [6, 7]. The exploitation of the new synthetic methodologies has not attracted the interest of industry so far for the lack of convenience and incentives to invest in building new plants or converting existing ones. As a matter of fact, only the reaction of CO 2 with butadiene (Scheme 39.4) has been investigated for long: it was discovered in the late 1970s [8] and studied until the 2000s [9–11] as it bears to fragrances that have a high added value. In this case the up-scale of the process reached only a pilot scale, although it had been demonstrated that the reaction can be addressed with high conversion yield ( >90%) and selectivity (98%) toward a six-membered lactone that may find large applications [12]. MLx + 2
CO 2 M = Pd(Ru, Ni) O O O O O O O O O O MLx + 3
CO 2 M = Rh O O
Conversion of butadiene into lactones and linear esters.
THE PRESENT 517 A reaction that is attracting much attention now is the production of acrylic acid from ethene and CO 2 . This type of reaction has been studied for years [13–15] without success, and it is only recently that alkyl acrylates [16] or acrylic acid sodium salts [17] have been produced in a quasi-catalytic way. It is worth noting that the recent interest in the utilization of CO 2 picked up the mid-1970s (originated by the oil crisis of 1973), in the 1990s (oil crisis), and 2010s (increase of the price of oil and “carbon tax”). After each “oil or energy crisis” the price of oil went down to figures that did not encourage any new investment in innovative processes: the interest in CO 2
In these days, we experience a quite different situation: the high price of oil (90–100 US$/barrel compared to the old 20–30 US$/barrel), but essentially the “carbon tax” and environmental legislation that require reduction in the emission of CO 2
2 conversion into useful chemicals is growing within industries that see in such technology a way to “pay less and cash more.” As a matter of fact, all the products that can be derived from CO 2 have a high added value. In principle, CO 2 may be a very cheap source of carbon: it is ubiquitous in the atmosphere (393 ppm) or in carbonate rocks. Its real cost is that of “separation” from the matrix in which it is contained. Recovering it from the atmosphere requires a “antientropy” work owing to its low concentration and for getting it from carbonate rocks, the latter must be heated to a temperature higher than 900 ◦ C, depending on the metal cation. It is noteworthy that natural deposits of CO 2 are available, which have been used so far for the extraction of very pure CO 2 used in the food industry, but also for less noble purposes such as enhanced oil recovery. The cost of such CO 2 is around 13–15 US$/t. Some industrial processes also produce CO 2 that is quite pure (Table 39.3) that can be recovered at low cost and used as it is for many purposes. CO 2 recovered from fermentation units is very pure and can find several applications. The most expensive “pure” anthropogenic CO 2 is that recovered from power plants flue gases in which it is contained at a concentration often lower than 14% in conjunction with SO x and NO
y that must be separated for most uses of CO 2 . Table 39.1 (right) shows the nonchemical uses of CO 2 exploited so far. In such applications, some 28 Mt/year of CO 2 are used. Such use is fast expanding in sectors such as Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR), dry washing, and refrigerators: the market will jump to over 200 Mt/year by 2020.
39.3 THE PRESENT The limited amount of CO 2 used has increased the common belief that the conversion of CO 2 cannot provide any significant contribution to the reduction of the atmospheric level of spent carbon. As a matter of fact, if one considers the potential expansion in the short term of the uses listed in Table 39.2, one can foresee that in the next five years or so, the amount of used CO 2
ocean if one considers that the increasing use of energy will expand the amount of emitted CO 2 to higher levels from the actual level of circa 30,000 Mt/year. Is there no hope then? Do we have to conclude that CCU has no role in the mitigation of the atmospheric level of CO 2 ?
perennial primary sources such as solar, wind, and geothermal energy may significantly contribute toward modifying the situation and to sensibly increase the conversion of CO 2 .
options are the use of excess electric energy produced today, wind energy, PV-cell energy, and geothermal energy. Such TABLE 39.3 Industrial Sources of CO 2 (Other than Power Generation) Source
Amount, Mt/y Oil refineries 850–900 LNG sweetening 20–25 Ammonia
160 Ethene and other petrochemical processes 155 Ethene oxide 10 Fermentation (bioethanol, breweries, etc.) >100 Cement production >1000 Iron and steel 870
518 SYNTHETIC PHOTOSYNTHESIS FOR THE CONVERSION OF LARGE VOLUMES OF CARBON DIOXIDE options can be exploited for the conversion of large volumes of CO 2 into fuels. The immediate benefit would be to recycle carbon, making fuels that can be used in existing transport or energy-generation facilities without any appreciable change and at affordable costs. Moreover, the conversion of CO 2 can be considered as a strategy for storing both hydrogen and electricity in a liquid form at room temperature, solving the problems connected to hydrogen storage and transport and electricity storage. The integration of the hydrogen economy with the utilization of CO 2 may represent the solution to two problems, opening a new era in the production of safe and easily “transportable energy.” The most suited CO 2 sources are either the continuous point sources (electricity generation based on fossil fuels combustion) or the atmosphere (the best option for the future, when new technologies will lower the cost of capture). Both these routes have high economic (30–90 US$/t) and energy costs. But if we consider the industrial point sources of CO 2
produce large volumes of CO 2 that have a degree of purity that make it immediately usable in other industrial applications with a very low cost of capture (Table 39.3). Such sources may represent, in the short term, an interesting reservoir of CO 2 ready for the conversion. Obviously, the conversion of CO 2 into fuels (alcohols or hydrocarbons) will require hydrogen that must be produced from water. The technology that is immediately ready is the electrolysis of water, already exploited on a significant scale. Obviously, such technology produces hydrogen at a cost that is higher than that produced by reforming. A cost analysis is made in the following to understand the barriers that need to be overcome for economic conversion of large volumes of CO 2 and foresee the expected level of application in the short term. Table 39.4 shows the cost of hydrogen produced using different technologies. One kilogram of hydrogen will allow to convert 7.3 kg of CO 2 into methanol according to reaction 39.5, producing 5.3 kg of methanol 3H 2 6 g + CO
2 44 g
→ CH 3 OH 32 g + H
2 O 16 g (39.5) The production cost of methanol is today 0.08 ¤/kg, in the best case considering the capex and opex, methanol can be produced from electrolytic hydrogen at a cost of 0.3 ¤/kg, that is circa four times higher than current price. What may make the balance positive for industry is the fact that if CO 2 is converted into other products the C-tax (where it exists) does not need to be paid: at the moment such tax varies over a considerable: 30–100 ¤/t, that means 0.03–0.1 ¤/kg. With this benefit the cost of production of methanol would be equal to ca. 0.16–0.2 ¤/kg or 160–200 ¤/t, getting closer the price of production of methanol from electrolytic hydrogen to the price of production using H 2 from gas reforming. Excess energy produced at peak output could, thus, advantageously be used for water electrolysis and CO 2 conversion into methanol, without influencing the electricity availability to day-to-day users. The real potential of such technology will depend on the up-scale of electrolyzers and the consequent cost of hydrogen. The use of wind towers dedicated to produce electricity for water and CO 2 co-electrolysis to afford products (Fig. 39.1) is an interesting alternative. In this case, the electricity is almost carbon-free and, in principle, water and CO 2 could be both recovered from the atmosphere. The use of wind as primary source of energy gives rise to the problem of intermittency. Indeed, this aspect has not been accorded a great importance in the application we are discussing; besides, a discontinued conversion of CO 2 caught from the atmosphere is also highly acceptable. In all such applications, there is the need of optimizing the engineering and the integration of processes so to minimize the need of storage of both H 2 and CO
2 . One could point out that if hydrogen is produced then it could be used directly. The advantages of coprocessing it with CO 2 are multiple. On the one hand, gasoline or diesel have a higher energy density by volume or mass (Figure 39.2) than H 2 and even batteries and would require less space for storage, while on the other hand, the storage of H 2 would be really minimized as H 2 would be used in situ and in a short time. TABLE 39.4 Cost of Production of Hydrogen (1 kg) using Various Technologies Technology Gas reforming Electrolysis with Nuclear Electrolysis with Electricity from Oil-Powered Station Electrolysis with PV Electrolysis with wind Electrolysis with SPC Cost,
¤ 1.10–1.15 1.45–1.50 3.50–2.20 2.8–4.0 3.8–5.20
3.50 THE PRESENT 519 Products
CO 2 + H 2 O Elecrolyzer Figure 39.1 The use of wind towers dedicated to produce electricity for water and CO 2 co-electrolysis to afford products. H 2 (g) 20 MPa 36 36 34 30 18 17 13 9 8 2 0 4 8 12 16 20 Volume energy density (GJ/m 3 )
28 32 36 40 Diesel
Batteries 0.33 ÷ 2.8 Methane (g) Methanol Bio-oil
from algae Bio-diesel Algae Gasoline
Carbon coke Brown coal H 2
Figure 39.2 Volume energy density of several liquid fuels, H 2 , methane, and batteries. However, primarily, making liquid fuels that are already in use would not change the existing infrastructures with large economic benefits and higher safety compared with respect to the use of H 2 .
2 from water or for the co-electrolysis of CO 2 and water. The cost of H 2 produced from water using PV is still too high today (2.8–4 ¤/kg) and this would prevent large-scale exploitation. But the electricity cost produced via PV is estimated to decrease, in the near future, to quite acceptable levels for exploitation in electrolytic processes on a large scale. Both the above technologies raise the problem of space: how much space is necessary for the conversion of 1 t of CO 2 or the production of 1 t of H 2 ? The reduction in space depends on the advancement of the technology and the increase in the W : m 2 ratio that is continuously increasing with new devices, making the exploitation of the use of PV or wind for the reduction of CO 2 more attractive. 520 SYNTHETIC PHOTOSYNTHESIS FOR THE CONVERSION OF LARGE VOLUMES OF CARBON DIOXIDE Also CSP (concentrators of solar power) can be used for CO 2 reduction or water splitting. CSP produce high temperature (up to 1300 ◦ C) that can drive high energy processes such as those mentioned above. Metal-assisted dissociation of CO 2 to CO using CPS is an interesting area of investigation. Syngas (H 2 + CO) could be produced by applying the CSP technology and used in existing infrastructures. The use of thermochemical cycles (Eqs. 39.6–39.8) may also be a way to produce H 2 from water. 2H 2 SO 4 (g) → 2SO 2 (g) + 2H
2 O (g) + O 2 (g)
(39.6) 2HI
→ I 2 (g) + H 2 (g)
(39.7) I 2 + SO 2 (a) + 2H 2 O → 2HI(a) + H 2 SO 4 (a) (39.8)
What is important is that the production of H 2 and the reduction of CO 2 are carried out in close environments in order to avoid the problems of H 2 storage and transport. From this point of view, the co-electrolysis of CO 2 and water is the best solution. The production of hydrogen for the conversion of CO 2 is a short-term option as it would make use of existing technologies that could be immediately implemented: it is a “transition technology” and not the technology of the future. The co-electrolysis of CO 2 and water is a technology that has been under investigation for some time. The nature of the products formed depends on the electrodes used (Table 39.5). Cu electrodes are of particular interest as they can afford ethene with quite a high selectivity [18]. However, there are problems, such as life of electrodes, selectivity, current density, and intensity, that need to be solved among others, but such technological issues can find a solution as these are not a priori constraints (the way negative thermodynamics can be). Looking at the products formed, the generation of ethene is an interesting option as ethene is not soluble in water and would spontaneously separate, avoiding separation costs that one would have in case alcohols such as methanol or ethanol are formed. In addition, the production of higher alcohols is of interest as they would have scarce solubility in water and so are easy to separate, resulting in a low production price. The production of a mixture of CO–H 2 is of interest as this mixture could be used as Syngas, eventually complemented with either species to reach the optimal molar ratio for application in methanol or Fischer–Tropsch (FT) syntheses. Summarizing, in the electrolysis of CO 2 in water, the target products would be CH 4 or CO/H 2 , as well as ethene or C n -alcohols and C n -hydrocarbons. The co-electrolysis of CO 2 and water avoids the need to store or transport hydrogen and can be performed close to any source of CO 2 . Such processes could be integrated into existing ones that produce CO 2 that is quite pure (see Table 39.3) and convert it. The co-electrolysis of CO 2 and water recovered from air has the further advantage that it can be carried out everywhere and, if the correct electrocatalytic process is found, the products of electrolysis can be insoluble in water (as stated above) and, so, easy to separate. The implementation of such reduction technologies will expand the use of CO 2 to unprecedented levels, but not yet to such levels as to represent a substantial part of the CO 2 emitted today and substantially contribute to CO 2 mitigation. Download 11.05 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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