Chemistry and catalysis advances in organometallic chemistry and catalysis
PART VI BIOORGANOMETALLIC CHEMISTRY
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- 41.2.2 Targets for CO Action
- 41.2.3 CO and Cytochrome c Oxidase
- 41.2.4 CO and NADPH Oxidase
- 41.2.5 CO and Ion channels
- 41.2.6 CO and Soluble Guanylate Cyclase, Nitric Oxide Synthase, and Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases
- 41.2.7 CO and HO-1 Amplification Loop
- 41.2.8 Summary
- 41.3.2 Prodrugs for Therapeutic Delivery of CO: CORMs
- 41.3.3 Metal Carbonyl Complexes (MCC) as CO-Releasing Molecules (CORM)
- 41.3.3.1 The First-Generation or Experimental CORMs
PART VI
BIOORGANOMETALLIC CHEMISTRY 543 41 METAL CARBONYLS FOR CO-BASED THERAPIES: CHALLENGES AND SUCCESSES Carlos C. Rom ˜ao *
Helena L. A. Vieira Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnol´ogica (IBET), Oeiras, Portugal; Chronic Diseases Research Center (CEDOC), Faculdade de Ciˆencias M´edicas, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal 41.1 INTRODUCTION Metals carbonyls, one of the most important families of complexes in organometallic chemistry, are already approaching their one hundred and twenty-fifth anniversary [1]. From their peculiar M–CO bonds, to their extraordinary role as starting materials for synthesis and catalysis, passing through the wondrous metal clusters they sustain, metal carbonyl complexes (MCC) enabled gigantic strides in chemistry, from theory to industrial applications. All this rich development took place in an artificial world essentially devoid of oxygen and water in which the low oxidation states of the metal, which stabilizes the M–CO bonds, are protected from oxidation. Sure enough, there existed metal carbonyls remarkably stable to air and water, but they were always regarded as highly dangerous materials that never escaped the spell of the original species, the really highly toxic Ni(CO) 4 [2]. The fact that they were obvious carriers of toxic CO did not help their reputation either. Altogether, these reasons kept metal carbonyls away from living organisms, biology, and life sciences. There seemed to exist no reason to change that situation until Sj¨ostrand [3] discovered that CO was endogenously produced in the human body and exhaled through respiration. It took 20 years until the human source of CO (the enzyme heme oxygenase, HO) was found [4], and another 20 to realize that it could have a biological role as a mediator, very much like NO [5]. At the time, the coordination of CO to heme proteins was already under intense study, but it took the power of protein crystallography to unveil the first biologically active MCC in living organisms, namely, in the hydrogenase enzymes of Desulfovibrio gigas [6] and Clostridium pasteurianium [7]. Clearly, the role of CO in biology was starting to emerge. The turn of the twenty-first century witnessed Otterbein and colleagues reporting the anti-inflammatory properties of CO gas in a mouse model of inflammation [1] at a time when MCCs were already patented for the therapeutic delivery of CO [8]. In the past 12 years, increasing interest has been given to the development of the biology and the pharmacological use of CO, and MCCs as versatile carriers of this active principle have played a central role in this research. In the remaining of this chapter, we describe the challenges met along this R&D process and the achievements that already brought MCCs close to clinical applications.
First Edition. Edited by Armando J. L. Pombeiro. © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
546 METAL CARBONYLS FOR CO-BASED THERAPIES: CHALLENGES AND SUCCESSES 41.2 CO IN BIOLOGY AND IN THERAPY— ORIGIN, TARGETS, AND THERAPEUTIC POTENTIAL 41.2.1 Origin The main source of endogenous formation of CO is the catabolism of heme, carried out by HO, an enzyme that is encoded by HMOX genes, ubiquitously expressed in living organisms. Indeed, this enzyme performs the oxidative cleavage of heme (Fe-protoporphyrin IX), which is opened and broken up into three products: CO, Fe 2 +
2 + is rapidly recycled through ferritin and biliverdin is enzymatically reduced to bilirubin, a potent antioxidant [9]. There are three described isoforms of HO. HO-1 is rapidly induced by cellular stress or injury [10]. HO-2 is constitutive, highly expressed mainly in the brain and cerebral vessels, and is rapidly activated in response to stress, maintaining brain homeostasis by increasing cerebral blood flow [11, 12]. The function of the putative HO-3 is still unclear [9]. The induction of HO-1 expression is very sensitive to any disruption of the balance of the intracellular redox state and/or to the presence of free heme, resulting from red blood cells senescence or other hemeproteins turnover [10]. Free heme is a powerful source of oxidative damage by its ability to catalyze the formation of hydroxyl radicals through the Fenton reaction, thus it must be rapidly destroyed by HO-1 [10, 13]. The resulting free CO is scavenged by hemoglobin and exhaled through the lungs. The average rate of CO excretion in a healthy individual is 0.4 ml/h [14], a value that increases in pathological conditions when HO-1 is activated in response to several distinct stimuli, namely, oxidative stress, ischemia–reperfusion, endotoxins, UVA radiation, or heat shock [9]. Therefore, owing to this cytoprotective and homeostatic function, HO-1 is a crucial enzyme. Deletion of HMOX1 gene strongly compromises the survival of mammals, which become extremely sensitive to several pathologies: endotoxic shock, atherosclerosis, malaria, ischemia–reperfusion, or severe sepsis [10]. The salutary role of HO-1 activity is not limited to heme clearance or to antioxidant action of bilirubin, because its by-product CO emerges as a powerful gasotransmitter involved in tissue homeostasis, as well as modulation of inflammation and of cell death; for reviews, see [15, 16]. Stimulation of endogenously generated CO and/or its exogenous administration exerts remarkable beneficial biological effects in many tissues, namely, anti-inflammatory [17, 18], antiapoptotic [19–21], antiproliferative [22], antiatherogenic [23, 24], and more recently as bactericidal agent [25]. Three main areas of potential therapeutic applications have been extensively studied: cardiovascular diseases, inflammatory disorders, and organ transplantation, including several patent applications [15, 26]. Thus, these and several other observations created a very clear notion that CO could become a useful therapeutic principle. The perspective of therapeutic delivery of CO under the wider umbrella of the potent HO protective system is very interesting and provides a rationale for the breadth of indications potentially covered by CO administration. 41.2.2 Targets for CO Action Several pathways have been described in the literature to explain the cytoprotective and therapeutic actions of CO. Nevertheless, those biochemical pathways and the actual physiological target(s) of CO are still a matter of great discussion. CO is a rather chemically inert molecule and, in biological systems, it can only bind to transition metals present in several proteins. Of course, this binding modulates the activity of such proteins [27]. In mammals, iron-containing hemeproteins are the most studied and documented targets for CO. Importantly, CO can only bind to reduced Fe 2 +
target proteins, in contrast to NO, which binds both Fe 2 + and Fe 3 + [27]. The high affinity of CO for hemoglobin (from erythrocytes) and myoglobin (Mb, from myocytes) is implicated in CO toxicity as it hampers O 2 delivery into tissues by those hemeproteins. The mediation of CO-induced cytoprotection by reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and signaling is increasingly accepted in several cell models: macrophages [28], neurons [21], astrocytes [20], endothelial cells [27], or cardiomyocytes [29]. At least two proteins are recognized to be directly implicated in cell redox signaling by CO: cytochrome c oxidase (COX, mitochondrial respiratory complex IV) and NAD(P)H oxidase (plasmatic membrane). In addition, CO also controls ions channels and activates soluble guanylate cyclase, although their direct interaction with CO is a matter of debate.
Mitochondria are key organelles in cellular functioning. They are the cell’s main energy source, being responsible for most of cellular ATP production via oxidative phosphorylation and modulation of cell death pathways through mitochondrial membrane permeabilization [29]. As COX is the final electron acceptor of the mitochondrial electron transport chain, its interaction with CO can modulate cell metabolism and survival [30].
CO IN BIOLOGY AND IN THERAPY— ORIGIN, TARGETS, AND THERAPEUTIC POTENTIAL 547 In 1970, it was proposed that CO toxicity at cellular level can be due to its inhibition of COX activity [31]. Indeed, 20 years later, it was demonstrated that the binding of CO to cytochrome a and a3 of COX is highly dependent on oxygen levels [32, 33]. In macrophage cells, CO limits inflammation by partially preventing COX activity [28, 34]. It is claimed that such decrease in COX activity facilitates electron leakage and reduction of O 2 into superoxide (O 2 − ), which is enzymatically converted into H 2 O 2 and other ROS that act as signaling factors. Indeed, CO cytoprotection is prevented by the addition of antioxidants in isolated mitochondria [20]. Therefore, salutary effects of CO are highly dependent on mitochondrial ROS generation. It is worth noting that modulation of COX activity is highly dependent on (i) CO concentration (low and signaling levels induce a transitory COX activity inhibition, while high concentrations of CO induce permanent inhibition [35, 36]) and (ii) oxygen levels. 41.2.4 CO and NADPH Oxidase NADPH oxidase is a plasmatic membrane complex containing hemeproteins, whose function is ROS generation. Although it is present in almost all tissues, this enzymatic complex has been mostly studied in phagocytes such as neutrophils, monocytes, and macrophages, because these cells are involved in host defense. While the CO–COX interaction generates ROS that function as signaling factors, CO modulates NADPH oxidase activity by decreasing ROS production and limiting oxidative stress. For instance, in lung endothelial cells, low concentrations of CO prevented hyperoxia-induced cell death by attenuating hyperoxia-induced ROS production [37]. Many other examples have been reported. See, for instance, references [38, 39]. 41.2.5 CO and Ion channels CO regulates the function of several ion channels but the molecular mechanisms by which this regulation takes place are still uncertain. The direct interaction of CO with ion channels is controversial because there is no transition metal present in the structure of these molecules. However, calcium-activated potassium (KCa) channels can bind covalently to heme [40]. Regardless of this debate, members of several ion channel families, both natively and heterologously expressed, are recognized molecular targets for the action of CO. Indeed, CO increases the opening probability of the large-conductance, voltage-activated K + channel, and Ca 2 + -activated K + channels, modulating vasomotor responses in smooth muscle cells [41], regulating oxygen sensing in glomus cells of carotid body [42], and controlling cerebral microvasculature [43, 44]. In the L-type voltage-activated Ca 2 +
channels [45] and activates them in intestinal smooth muscle via a NO-dependent mechanism [46]. The purinergic P2X receptors are the only ligand-gated ion channels described, which are modulated by CO [47]; however, it is not clear if CO directly binds to P2X receptors or if its effect is due to soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC) activity, ROS, or NO-dependent signaling. 41.2.6 CO and Soluble Guanylate Cyclase, Nitric Oxide Synthase, and Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases Under physiological conditions, the capacity of CO to bind sGC and nitric oxide synthase (NOS) is still controversial. Although CO signaling pathways can involve cGMP and NO generation, high concentrations of CO are required for activating sGC and NOS. Many effects mediated by CO-induced activation of sGC/cGMP have been described: inhibition of platelet activation and aggregation, smooth muscle relaxation, vasoactive effects, inhibition of cellular proliferation, prevention of apoptosis, and effects on neurotransmission [5, 21, 23, 48]. Generation of nitric oxide (NO) via activation and/or expression of NOS also appear as another process involved in CO biological activity, such as in the control of inflammation [49, 50] and inhibition of apoptosis in liver [51] and in neurons [21], for a review, see [52]. Yet, it is not clear whether CO activates sGC directly or indirectly via NO production. In any case, it is clear that CO and NO signaling can cross talk in several pathways. Still, evidence suggests an important role of CO as a signaling molecule in modulating mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), especially p38 MAPK. CO-mediated activation of p38 MAPK has been shown to exert anti-inflammatory [17, 53], antiapoptotic [19, 54], and antiproliferative effects [55]. 41.2.7 CO and HO-1 Amplification Loop In most of studies, exogenous CO biological effects were assessed in wild-type (Hmox1 +/+ ) cells that can express HO-1. It is claimed that CO mimics the cytoprotective effects of HO-1, acting independently of HO-1 to exert its cytoprotection. 548 METAL CARBONYLS FOR CO-BASED THERAPIES: CHALLENGES AND SUCCESSES However, one should not exclude the possibility that the cytoprotective effects of CO might be mediated, at least in some cases, via induction of HO-1, participating in a positive forward feedback loop. 41.2.8 Summary Although different mechanisms explaining the cellular effects and biochemical pathways of CO have been described, the exact underlying signaling mechanisms and precise molecular targets of CO are only partially elucidated. However, such targets immediately disclose the very large setting of therapeutic applications of CO. Figure 41.1 summarizes the facts described in this section and points to some of the most important medical indications that can be treated with CO therapy.
The therapeutic use of CO should have several advantages. The first, and probably foremost, is the fact that CO is an endogenous molecule to which the organism is fully adapted. Secondly, CO does not react indiscriminately with intracellular targets as the other gasotransmitters NO and H 2 S do. CO reacts exclusively with transition metals [27], limiting its biological targets. Finally, from a pharmacological point of view, CO gas-based therapies have the major advantage of reducing metabolite-associated toxicity because, in this case, drug extraction occurs by exhalation. Beyond acute and chronic diseases, CO can also be used to prevent complications resulting from treatments or surgical interventions such as postoperative intestinal paralysis (in human clinical trials) or arteriosclerotic lesions associated with transplant and angioplasty [23]. In the following, we discuss how this therapeutic potential can be harnessed to make useful drugs. Comples IV cytochrome c oxidase O 2 O 2− NADPH oxidase NAD(P)H NAD(P)
+ Plasmatic membrane Mitochondria Other cytochromes ?? CO Some potential applications: – allograft transplantation – cerebral ischemic and haemorragic stroke – pulmonary hypertension – bacterial infection – cerebral malaria Cellular processes modulated by CO: –inflammation –apoptosis/cell death – metabolism Guanylate cyclase Nitirc oxide synthase MAP kinases Toxic-free heme is destroyed by heme oxygenase H 2 C H 2 C CH 3 CH 3 CH 3 CH 3 N N N N O O OH OH lon channels Figure 41.1 Biological generation of CO, its targets, its signaling processes, and disease indications. THERAPEUTIC DELIVERY OF CO 549 41.3.1 CO Gas and Inhalation Therapy Inhalation, the simplest way of applying therapeutic CO, has been used in vitro and in vivo. The objects of treatment (cells, tissues, or rodents) are placed inside chambers into which controlled amounts of CO are admitted to maintain a suitable concentration for a given time, for example, 250 ppm CO and 1 h exposure. Crucial proofs-of-concept for the therapeutic use of CO have been obtained in this way [15, 26]. However, some shortcomings of this methodology are easy to identify: (i) toxicity confines this technology to hospital settings with specialized equipment [15]; (ii) even if carefully controlled, the effects of CO toxicity are not completely correlated to the amount of COHb in systemic circulation [56]; and (iii) the equilibrium of the competitive binding of O 2 and CO to Hb is such that it facilitates the transfer of CO from the tissues with low amounts of O 2 to blood and the lungs where the high partial pressure of O 2 readily displaces CO and reoxygenates Hb. Therefore, inhaled CO transported by Hb (COHb) is not likely to migrate from the red blood cells to the surrounding tissues. Dogs transfused with CO-saturated blood up to circa 80% COHb in circulation survive without intoxication [57]! This barrier against the natural thermodynamics of gas transport by Hb can only be overcome by administration of high amounts of inhaled CO, a constraint that limits the therapy in humans where the maximum COHb levels allowed are circa 13%. Furthermore, CO inhalation lacks tissue specificity: CO will be equally distributed to healthy and diseased tissues. While not preventing the launching of three clinical human trials, these observations led to the early proposal that CO therapy should be mediated by prodrugs that could deliver CO in vivo.
Ideally, such prodrugs should remain intact during their transit through the organism and, like HO-1, deliver small amounts of CO in the site of disease in response to some local stimulus. This process avoids the use of large amounts of CO in circulation and minimizes the dose of prodrug to be used. A broad experimentation program at Alfama Inc. found that all the organic compounds such as tertiary aldehydes [58], haloalkanes [59], and organic oxalates were either too weak CO releasers or had a too high systemic toxicity. Sodium boranocarbonate, Na 2 [H 3 BCO
2 ] (CORM-A1) and its ester and amide derivatives [60] showed very good results in many disease models [18, 61, 62], but had a rather narrow therapeutic window for most applications tried. So, transition MCC emerged as the more versatile source of CO prodrugs, now designated as CORM (CO-releasing molecule). 41.3.3 Metal Carbonyl Complexes (MCC) as CO-Releasing Molecules (CORM) The release of CO through decomposition of MCCs may be initiated by different processes, namely, light irradiation, ligand substitution (dissociative or associative), pH variation, oxidatively induced ligand dissociation, enzymatic, and/or metabolic decomposition of the ligand sphere. With the exception of the enzymatic and metabolic processes, these reactions were widely studied in organometallic chemistry but most examples are largely irrelevant for biology and pharmacology owing to the anhydrous, anaerobic, thermal, and illumination conditions under which they were carried out. The only exception can be found for the metal carbonyl complexes [M I (CO) 3 L 3 ] z and [CpR)M(CO) 3 ] (M
= 99m
Tc, Re) used for radiopharmaceutical purposes [63, 64]. These water-soluble complexes based on d 6 metal ions are inert to substitution and oxidation reactions and are able to make their way through the body unchanged as required for the rapid elimination of radioactive metabolites [65]. On the contrary, CORMs will have to be decomposed making the formation of metabolites unavoidable, and the control over all the variables involved in their chemistry and biology much more complex. So, the search for the controlled decomposition of MCCs under biologically relevant conditions and the validation of the biological outcome and therapeutic efficacy that they produced initiated a new chapter in the young field of bioorganometallic chemistry. 41.3.3.1 The First-Generation or Experimental CORMs The first examples of metal-based CORMs appeared in companies, which used them to prove the concept of therapeutic efficacy with CO prodrugs. The two groups of CORMs discussed in this section were, until 2012, the only ones reported to be tested in animal models of disease. Since these first-generation CORMs provided ground-breaking and invaluable information for the advancement of CORMs and CO therapy but still lack pharmacologically acceptable properties, we call them experimental CORMs. The Ru II (CO) 3 Derivatives CORM-2 and CORM-3 The first MCCs used as CORMs were reported by Motterlini and Mann (Fig. 41.2). As described in a recent personal overview [66], the DMSO-soluble [Ru(CO) 3 Cl 2 ] 2 (CORM-2) was chosen on |
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