Chemistry and catalysis advances in organometallic chemistry and catalysis
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269 270 HALF-SANDWICH RHODIUM(III), IRIDIUM(III), AND RUTHENIUM(II) COMPLEXES 21.2 HALF-SANDWICH Ru(II) DERIVATIVES The first report on half-sandwich derivatives appeared more than thirty years ago, Ferguson et al. describing the reaction of [( η
-benzene)RuCl 2 ] 2 or [(
η 5 -C 5 Me 5 )RhCl 2 ] 2 with tetrakis(1-pyrazolyl)- and hydrotris(1-pyrazolyl)borate, respectively, which afforded complexes isolated as their PF 6 − salts [4]. The crystal structure of the two derivatives confirmed their ionic nature with discrete, well-separated cations containing the scorpionate ligands acting in a tridentate manner and PF 6 −
(Fig. 21.1). A decade later, attempts to extend the same synthetic procedure in acetonitrile to the more sterically demanding tris(3,5-dimethylpyrazolyl)borate ligand were unsuccessful, leading to the isolation of the amidine cationic complex [(C
6 H 6 )Ru {NH=CMe(Me 2 pz)
}(R 2 Hpz)] 2 + . Reactions of [(C 6 H 6 )RuCl 2 ] 2 with pyrazoles, carried out in methanol, afforded [(C 6
6 )RuCl(R
2 Hpz)
2 ] + species (R = H or Me), while in benzene only [(C 6 H
)RuCl 2 (Me 2 Hpz)] was obtained [5]. Several works also appeared on the synthesis of dinuclear cationic (arene)Ru(II) complexes [ {(arene)Ru} 2 (L)
3 ] + (Fig. 21.2a) (bridged L ligand = pyrazolate (pz), OH, or OMe) from the reaction of [{(arene)Ru} 2 (OH) 3 ] + (arene = η
6 -p-cymene, η 6
6 Me 6 ) with pyrazole in refluxing acetone or methanol [6]. Contemporarily, heterobinuclear [(arene)MCl 2 (pz)M (tfb)] derivatives (Fig. 21.2b) were reported and structurally characterized (M = Ru, arene = p-cymene, M = Rh; M = Ir, arene = C
5 Me 5 , M = Rh; M = Rh, arene = C 5 Me
, M = Ir) and [(C 5 Me
)IrCl(pz) 2 Rh(tfb)] (Fig. 21.2c) (tfb = tetrafluorobenzo[5.6]bicyclo[2.2.2]octan-2,5,7-triene) [7]. An extended study on several mixed-ligand derivatives of different composition, as, for example, [(p- cymene)Ru(pz)(acac)], [(p-cymene)Ru(pzH)(acac)]BF 4 , [(p-cymene)Ru(pzH) 2 Cl]BF
4 , and [(p-cymene)Ru(pzH) 2 (pz)]BF
4 was reported (Fig. 21.3), together with a detailed NMR investigation and X-ray diffraction study on the latter compound [8]. Several studies have been published on neutral and cationic half-sandwich (arene)Ru(II) derivatives containing differently substituted pyrazoles and pyrazolates [9], and also pyrazole– phosphinite ligands, together with preliminary tests on their catalytic activity in transfer hydrogenation of cyclohexanone by propan-2-ol [10]. Different combinations, such as [(p-cymene)Ru(pzH) 3 ][BF
4 ] 2 and [(p-cymene)Ru(pz) 2 (pzH)], together with the heterodinuclear complexes [(p-cymene)RuCl( μ-pz)
2 M(CO)
2 ] (M
= Rh, Ir) (Fig. 21.4a) were also reported. The heterodinuclear complexes [(p-cymene)RuCl( μ-ClPhpz) 2 Ir(CO) 2 ] and [(p-cymene)RuCl( μ-MePhpz) 2 Ir(CO) 2 ] exist in Ru N
N N N N B N N Rh N N N N N N B H (a)
(b) Figure 21.1 (a) [(Benzene)Ru( κ 3
+ ; (b) [(C 5 Me
)Rh( κ 3 -hydrotris(1-pyrazolyl)borate] + . Ru N N N N N N Ru F F F F Ru N N Cl Cl Rh F F F F Rh N N Cl Cl Ir (a) (b) (c)
Figure 21.2 (a) [
{(p-Cymene)Ru} 2 (pyrazolate) 3 ] + ; (b) [ {(p-cymene)Ru} 2 Cl
(pz)(tfb)] + ; (c) [ {(C 5 M 5 )RhIr
} 2 Cl 2 (pz)(tfb)] + .
HALF-SANDWICH Ru(II) DERIVATIVES 271 Ru N N O O Ru N NH O O Ru N NH Cl N NH (a)
(b) (c)
Figure 21.3 (a) [(p-Cymene)Ru(pz)(acac)]; (b) [(p-cymene)Ru(pzH)(acac)] + ; (c) [(p-cymene)Ru(pzH) 2 Cl]
+ . Ru N N N N
Cl M M = Rh(I), Ir(I) CO CO (a) Ru N N
I I Rh COOR CO (b) I Figure 21.4 (a) [(p-Cymene)RuCl( μ-pz) 2
2 ]; (b) [(p-cymene)Ru( μ-pz)(μ-I) 2 RhI(CO)(COOR)]. solution as two isomers in equilibrium with each other that implies a reversible metal–metal bond formation accompanied by halide migration [11]. The same authors described the unusual reactivity of these heterodinuclear complexes containing bridged pyrazolato and terminal carbonyl ligands with alcohols, leading to formation of alcoxycarbonyl derivatives (Fig. 21.4b) [12]. Other heterodinuclear [(p-cymene)Ru( μ-pz)
3 M(PPh
3 )] (M
= Cu, Ag, Au), [(p-cymene)Ru(pz)(μ-pz) 2 ML 2 ] (M
= Rh, L 2 = cod, L = CO, M = Ir, L = CO), and heterotrinuclear cationic complexes [(p-cymene)Ru(μ-pz) 3 {Ag(PPh 3 ) } 2 ]BF
4 (Fig. 21.5) have been synthesized by using bis(pyrazolato)(p-cymene)(pyrazole)ruthenium(II) as starting reactant [13]. The carbonyl complexes react with mono- or diphosphines giving [(p-cymene)Ru(pz)( μ-pz)
2 M(CO)(PR
3 )] and [(p-cymene)Ru(pz)( μ-pz) 2 M(diphos)] (PR 3 = PPh
3 or P(OMe
3 ), diphos = bis(diphenylphosphino)methane, 1,2- bis(diphenylphosphino)ethane, cis-1,2-bis(diphenylphosphino)ethylene, (R)-( +)-1,2-bis(diphenylphosphino)propane, M = Rh, Ir), respectively (Fig. 21.5). Similar dinuclear bridged pyrazolato Os–Ir and Os–Rh complexes of formula [(p-cymene)OsCl( μ-pz)
2 Ir(CO)
2 ] were
also reported, together with a theoretical study on an isomerization process observed in solution where the chloride moves from one metal center to the other [14]. A different approach was used by Oro [15], in collaboration with Trofimenko, in the reaction of [ML(pz) 2 (Hpz)] (L = C 5 Me 5 , M
= Ir (1); L = mesitylene or p-cymene, M = Ru) with [M Cl{HB(3- i-Pr-4-Br-pz) 3 }] (M = Co, Ni) to yield heterodinuclear complexes of formula [LM(μ-pz) 2 ( μ-Cl)M {HB(3-i-Pr-4-Br-pz) 3 }] containing a tridentate scorpionate ligand capping one metal, besides bridging the pyrazolates between the two metal centers (Fig. 21.6). The same starting [ML(pz) 2 (Hpz)] complexes were used to synthesize heterodinuclear Ru–Pt and Ir–Pt complexes of general formula [ML( μ-pz)
3 PtMe
3 ] [16].
Tocher and Bhambri [17] reported the synthesis and characterization, in some cases also by X-ray diffraction techniques, of a number of cationic cyclohexadienyl, (arene)ruthenium(II) poly(pyrazolyl)borate, and poly(pyrazolyl)methane complexes, displaying a similar κ 3 coordination on the (arene)ruthenium fragment when the reaction was performed in the presence of NH 4 PF 6 salt (Fig. 21.7a and b). However, in absence of the former compound, a κ 2 coordination of ligands was observed and the (arene)ruthenium fragment holds a chloride, affording neutral derivatives (Fig. 21.7c) [18]. An electrochemical study on [(arene)Ru( κ 3
3 )] 2 + complexes (arene = p-xylene, p-cymene, or hexamethylbenzene) has shown that one-electron reduction of the doubly charged cationic complexes does not result in lowering of the hapticity of the scorpionate ligand [19]. An interesting κ 1 coordination of HBpz 3 ligand has been found in the (p-cymene)Ru(quin)( κ 1 -HBpz 3 ) complex (quin = quinolin-8-ate) (Fig. 21.7d), and the same authors reported also the cationic complex [(p-cymene)Ru(quin)( κ 1 -Hpz)]CF 3 SO 3 arising from B–N bond cleavage in the presence of AgCF 3 SO 3 [20].
A chiral alkyltris(pyrazolyl)borate ligand has been used in the synthesis of [(p-cymene)Ru( κ 3 -(Ipc)Bpz 3 )]PF 6 (Ipc
= isopinocampheyl) (Fig. 21.8a) [21]. The complex [(p-cymene)RuCl(κ 2 -(dmap)Bpz 3 )]PF
6 has been recently reported 272 HALF-SANDWICH RHODIUM(III), IRIDIUM(III), AND RUTHENIUM(II) COMPLEXES Ru N N
N N N M M = Rh(I), Ir(I), R = Ph or OMe PR 3 CO N Ru N N N N
N M M = Rh(I), Ir(I), R = Ph PR 2 PR 2 N Ru N N N N
N M M = Cu(I), Ag(I), Au(I) PPh 3 N Ru N N
N N N Ag PPh 3 N Ag PPh
3 (a)
(b) (c)
(d) Figure 21.5 (a) [(p-Cymene)Ru(pz)( μ-pz) 2
3 )]; (b) [(p-cymene)Ru(pz)( μ-pz) 2
μ-pz) 3 M(Ph 3 )];
(d) [(p-cymene)Ru( μ-pz)
3 {Ag(PPh
3 ) } 2 ] + . Ir N N N N N N H Cl M N N N N
N N B H Ir N N N N N N M N N
N N N N B H Ru N N N N
N N H (a) M = Co(II), Ni(II) (b) M = Co(II), Ni(II) Pr i
i Pr i Br Br Cl M N N
N N N N B H Pr i Pr i Pr i Br Br Br Pr i Pr i Pr i Br Ru N N
N N N N M N N
N N N N B H Br Pr i Pr i Pr i Br Figure 21.6 Synthesis of (a) [(C 5 Me
)Ir( μ-pz)
3 M {HB(3-i-Pr-4-Br-pz) 3 }] and (b) [(p-cymene)Ru(μ-pz) 3 M
3 }].
(Fig. 21.8b), (dmap)Bpz 3 (dmap = 4-dimethylaminopyridine) being a heteroscorpionate ligand that was prepared through a flexible route by interaction of the precursor [(HNMe 2 )Bpz
3 ] (readily available by reaction of B(NMe 2 )
with pyrazole) and dmap in toluene heated at reflux to liberate HNMe 2 [22].
Dinuclear complexes with tris(pyrazolyl)borates and bridging arenethiolato ligands, of formula [( κ 3 -HBpz 3 )RhCl( μ- SR)
2 MCp*Cl] and [( κ 3
3 )RhCl(
μ-SR) 2 MCp*(MeCN)]PF 6 (M = Rh, Ir; R = Ph, Tol) [23] (Fig. 21.9a and b) and [( κ 3 -HBpz 3 )RhCl( μ-EPh) 2 RuCp*(MeCN)] (E = S, Se, Te) (Fig. 21.9c) have been reported by Mizobe et al. [24]. When HALF-SANDWICH Ru(II) DERIVATIVES 273 Ru N N N N N N B H Ru N N N N N N C H Ru Cl N N N N B H N N (a) (c) Ru (d) N N N N B H N N N O (b)
Figure 21.7 (a) [(p-Cymene)Ru( κ 3
3 )] + ; (b) [(p-cymene)Ru( κ 3 -HCpz 3 )] 2 + ; (c) [(p-cymene)RuCl( κ 2 -HBpz 3 )]; (d) [(p-cymene) Ru( κ
-HBpz 3 )(quin)]. Ru N N N N N N B (a) Ru N N N N N N B N (b) Me 2 N Cl
(a) [(p-Cymene)Ru( κ 3 -(Ipc)Bpz 3 )] + ; (b) [(p-cymene)RuCl( κ 2
3 )] + . the latter dinuclear Rh–Ru complexes was dissolved in tetrahydrofuran (THF) and exposed to air, the MeCN ligand bound to Ru is replaced by dioxygen to give the peroxo complexes [( κ 3 -HBpz 3 )RhCl( μ-EPh) 2 RuCp*( η 2 -O 2 )] (Fig. 21.9d). A heteroscorpionate tridentate N,O,N-ligand [Li ·(thf)(L)] has been developed by Wagner et al. [25] and used in the synthesis of [Cp*Ru(L)] and [(p-cymene)Ru(L)]Cl (Fig. 21.10a and b). Other chelating ligands with an ortho-hydroquinoline substituent on a bis(3,5-dimethylpyrazolyl)methane moiety have been synthesized and coordinated to Cp*Ir(III) (Fig. 21.10c) and (p-cymene)Ru(II) fragments (Fig. 21.10d) [26]. (Arene)Ru(II) complexes containing third-generation heteroscorpionate ligands, namely, tris(pyrazolyl)methanesulfonates (Fig. 21.11) have been reported by us together with a detailed characterization, also by X-ray techniques and electrochemical studies that allowed to compare the electron-donor character of the scorpionate and arene ligands (arene = p-cymene, benzene, hexamethylbenzene) [27]. We have extended our studies also to other polydentate scorpionate ligands, the bis(pyrazolyl)acetates L − , which have been shown to coordinate (arene)Ru(II) fragments (arene = p-cymene, benzene, hexamethylbenzene) both in the neutral or anionic forms [28]. While the ligands HL in the neutral form coordinate ruthenium in a chelating κ 2 -N,N-bidentate fashion affording 1 : 1 derivatives of formula [(arene)Ru( κ 2
− ligands coordinate in the tripodal κ 3
κ 3 -N,N,O-L)]Cl (Fig. 21.12a and b). 274 HALF-SANDWICH RHODIUM(III), IRIDIUM(III), AND RUTHENIUM(II) COMPLEXES M = Rh(III), Ir(III) R = Ph, Tol M S
N N N N N N B H S Cl Cl R R M = Rh(III), Ir(III) R = Ph, Tol M S Rh N N N N N N B H S Cl MeCN R R E = S, Se, Te Ru E Rh N N N N N N B H E Cl MeCN
Ph Ph E = S, Se, Te Ru E Rh N N N N N N B H E Cl O Ph Ph O (a) (c) (d)
(b) Figure 21.9 (a) [(
κ 3 -HBpz 3 )RhCl(
μ-SR) 2 MCp*Cl]; (b) [( κ 3 -HBpz 3 )RhCl(
μ-SR) 2 MCp*(MeCN)] + ; (c) [(
κ 3 -HBpz 3 )RhCl(
μ-EPh) 2 RuCp*(MeCN)]; (d) [( κ 3 -HBpz 3 )RhCl(
μ-EPh) 2 RuCp*( η 2 -O 2 )].
(a) (c)
Ru N N B N N N N B O Ru N N B N N N N B O Ir Ru N N N N R R O O N N N N R R O O R ′ R ′ R ′ R ′ R = R
′ = Me R = t-Bu, R ′ = H (b)
(d) R = R ′ = Me
R = t-Bu, R ′ = H
Figure 21.10 (a) [Cp*Ru( κ 3
μ-O)(μ-pz)B(pz)Ph)]; (b) [(p-cymene)Ru(κ 3 -Ph(pz)B( μ-O)(μ-pz)B(pz)Ph)] + ; (c) [Cp*Ir( κ 2 - O 2 C 6 H 3 C(H)(pz R,R
) 2 )]; (d) [(p-cymene)Ru( κ 2 -O 2 C 6 H 3 C(H)(pz R,R ) 2 )]. HALF-SANDWICH Ru(II) DERIVATIVES 275 Ru N N N N N N C SO 3
[(p-Cymene)Ru( κ 3 -(SO 3 )C(pz 3 )] + . Ru OH C N N N N C H (a)
Ru O O C N N N N C H Cl O (b) Figure 21.12 (a) [(p-Cymene)Ru( κ 2
+ ; (b) [(p-cymene)Ru( κ 3
+ . Also for this series of complexes, a detailed electrochemical investigation has been performed, which allowed to order the HL and L − ligands according to their electron-donor character. In addition, density functional theory (DFT) calculations showed a relevant contribution of L ligand orbitals to the highest occupied molecular orbitals (HOMOs) when they are coordinated in the monoanionic tridentate form, while for derivatives containing neutral HL ligands, the main contribution to the HOMOs comes from orbitals of the metal and chlorine atoms, the overall contribution from the bidentate HL ligand orbitals being small. All complexes are soluble in water and those with neutral HL ligands show very high conductance values in water, due to the contribution of H 3 O + produced by deprotonation of the –COOH fragment in HL ligands and consequent formation of [(arene)Ru( κ 3 -N,N,O-L)]Cl species. An extensive study on (arene)Ru(II) complexes with bis-, tris-, and tetrakis-pyrazolylborates, containing hindered substituents in the pz rings, has been also reported, together with structural and electrochemical investigations that allowed comparing the electron-donor characters of these and related ligands and estimating the corresponding values of the Lever E L ligand parameter [29]. More interestingly, some of these complexes act as catalyst precursors for the diastereoselective nitroaldol reaction of benzaldehyde and nitroethane to the corresponding β-nitroalkanol (up to 82% yield, at room temperature) with diastereoselectivity toward the formation of the threo isomer. In recent years, catalytic applications of half-sandwich metal complexes have been extensively developed. A series of (p-cymene)Ru(II) complexes containing pyrazole-based N-heterocyclic carbine (pyrazolin-3-ylidene) ligands (Fig. 21.13a and b) showed excellent catalytic β-alkylation of secondary alcohols with primary alcohols and the dimerization of phenylacetylene [30]. The catalytic activity of ruthenium(II) complexes [(arene)RuCl 2 (3,5-Me
2 pz)] (arene = C 6
6 , p-cymene, or C 6 Me
) in the redox isomerization of allylic alcohols into carbonyl compounds in water has been reported [31]. Phosphine-pyrazolyl-based tripod ligands L (L = ROCH
2 C(CH
2 pz)
2 (CH
2 PPh
2 ) where R = H, Me, allyl) afford [(p-cymene)RuCl 2 (L)] complexes (Fig. 21.13c) that demonstrated poor-to-moderate catalytic activity in the transfer hydrogenation of acetophenone [32]. Arene ruthenium(II) cationic complexes containing bis(pyrazolyl)methane ligands L have been reported, the final products being [(arene)Ru(L)Cl]Cl or [(arene)Ru(L)Cl][(arene)RuCl 3 ] depending to the ratio of reactants employed (Fig. 21.14a and b) [33]. The interionic structure of [(p-cymene)Ru(L)Cl](O 3 SCF 3 ) and [(p-cymene)Ru(L)Cl][(p-cymene)RuCl 3 ] has been investigated through an integrated approach based on nuclear Overhauser effect (NOE) and pulsed field gradient spin- echo (PGSE) NMR experiments in CD 2 Cl
as a function of the concentration. PGSE NMR measurements indicate the |
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