Chemistry and catalysis advances in organometallic chemistry and catalysis
PART V ORGANOMETALLIC CHEMISTRY AND SUSTAINABLE
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- 38.1.1 The Working Principles of Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSCs)
- TABLE 38.1 The Absorption Spectra and Conversion Efficiencies of Various Metal Complexes for DSSC Application
- 38.3.1 Complexes of Osmium
- 38.3.2 Complexes of Platinum
- Figure 38.3
- 38.3.4 Complexes of Copper
- 38.3.5 Complexes of Iridium
PART V
ORGANOMETALLIC CHEMISTRY AND SUSTAINABLE ENERGY 501 38 ORGANOMETALLIC COMPOUNDS FOR DYE-SENSITIZED SOLAR CELLS (DSSC) Delele W. Ayele Department of Chemical Engineering, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China Wei-Nein Su Graduate Institute of Applied Science and Technology, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China John Rick, Hung-Ming Chen, Chun-Jern Pan, and Nibret G. Akalework Department of Chemical Engineering, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China Bing-Joe Hwang *
The demand for energy is one of the most important factors shaping human life in the twenty-first century [1]. The vast majority of the world’s energy is generated from nonrenewable sources, specifically oil, coal and gas [2]. Just over 13% of global energy is derived from renewable sources, only a small percentage of which comes from hydrothermal, geothermal, solar, wind, tidal, and wave sources [2]. The increasing consumption of fossil fuels that has led to global warming and environmental pollution has now created an awareness of the need for renewable energy sources and sustainable development. The need to move toward a low carbon consumption economy has led to an unprecedented interest in renewable energy sources, including solar power. Depending on the device, the harvesting of light energy from the sun (i.e., solar energy) can generate power for conversion to either electricity [3] or chemical energy [4]. One type of solar-powered device, which is at the center of an ongoing research effort to utilize clean and renewable energy, is the dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC) [5] containing ruthenium complexes in the photoanode and platinum in the counterelectrode (Fig. 38.1) first reported in 1991 by Michael Gr¨atzel and coworkers at the Ecole Polytechnique F´ed´erale de Lausanne[6]. Thus, platinum group metals and organometallic complexes of ruthenium and its analogs appear to have a pivotal role in sustainable energy technology. More recently, metal complexes, and ruthenium complexes in particular, have been investigated intensively for DSSC applications [7]. DSSC technology has been seen as an inexpensive and promising alternative to the proven solid-state photovoltaic cells [8]. 38.1.1 The Working Principles of Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSCs) So far, different metal complexes [9, 10] have been used as light-harvesting dyes in DSSC applications (see the working principle in Fig. 38.1). The DSSC components include a semiconductor (usually a TiO 2 film on conducting glass), the Advances in Organometallic Chemistry and Catalysis: The Silver/Gold Jubilee International Conference on Organometallic Chemistry Celebratory Book, First Edition. Edited by Armando J. L. Pombeiro. © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
504 ORGANOMETALLIC COMPOUNDS FOR DYE-SENSITIZED SOLAR CELLS (DSSC) FTO TiO
2 Dye
Electrolyte Counter
electrode D + /D* 2 CB 5 7 6 1 4 D + /D
OC 3
3 − I − e V Figure 38.1 The construction of a dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC) and its operating principle. D, Dye; CB, conduction band of TiO 2 ;
max , maximum voltage. (See insert for color representation of the figure.) TABLE 38.1 The Absorption Spectra and Conversion Efficiencies of Various Metal Complexes for DSSC Application Dye
IPCE, % Absorption (nm) ε (10
3 m 2 /mol) Short-Circuit Current, J sc , mA/cm 2 Fill Factor (FF) Open-Circuit Voltage, V oc , mV Efficiency, η, %
N3 83 534 (1.42) 18.20 0.730
720 10.00 [15, 16] N719 85
17.73 0.750
846 11.18 [10, 17] N749 80
0.722 736
11.10 [18, 19] Z907
72 526 (1.22) 13.60 0.692
721 6.80 [20] Z907 72
14.60 0.693
722 7.30 [20] K8 77
18.00 0.750
640 8.64 [21] K19 70
14.61 0.671
711 7.00 [22] N945 80
16.50 0.720
790 9.60 [23] Z910 80
17.20 0.764
777 10.20 [24] K73 80
17.22 0.694
748 9.00 [25] K51 70
15.40 0.685
738 7.80 [26] HRs-1 80
20.00 0.690
680 9.50 [27] Z955 80
16.37 0.693
707 8.00 [28] sensitizer (dye) absorbed on a semiconductor film, an electrolyte containing a redox mediator, and a counterelectrode capable of regenerating the redox mediator. At present, state-of-the-art DSSCs based on metal complexes (such as Ru and Zn) as the active materials have overall power conversion efficiencies over 11% under standard (Global Air Mass 1.5) illumination [9, 11]. Table 38.1 indicates the conversion efficiencies of various metal complexes for DSSC applications. More specifically, the high efficiencies of the ruthenium(II)-polypyridyl DSSCs [11] can be attributed to their wide absorption ranges from the visible to the near infrared (NIR). In addition, the carboxylate groups attached to the bipyridyl moiety lower the energy of the ligand π* orbital. The absorption spectra of ruthenium polypyridyl systems can be tuned by careful consideration of the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) and lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) energy levels. Thus, research on metal complexes as dyes for DSSC applications remains an active topic specifically with regard to the molecular engineering of panchromatic dyes able to absorb visible light of all colors [11] and the stabilities of dyes with redox mediators [12]. Additionally, dyes binding modes with semiconductor films [13, 14] are being investigated to improve the performance of metal complex-based DSSCs.
RUTHENIUM COMPLEXES FOR DSSC 505 The basic operating principle for DSSCs consists of light absorption, charge separation, and charge collection. These parameters are optimized by different cell types to attain greater efficiencies. The detailed working principles of DSSC based on Fig. 38.1 can be described by the following steps [7, 29]: 1. D + hν → D*, photoexcitation of the dye via absorption of light. 2. D* → D
+ + e
− (CB, conduction band), electron injection into TiO 2 , resulting in the oxidation of the photosensitizer followed by electron transport: e − (CB) → e − (FTO) → e − (CE, counterelectrode). 3. e − (CE) + I 3 − → I − , the oxidized redox mediator, I 3 − , diffuses toward the counter electrode and is reduced to I − ions
(reduction of triiodide). 4. D
+ + I
− → D + I
3 − , the oxidized dye (D + ) accepts electrons from the I − ion redox mediator, regenerating the ground state (D), and I − is oxidized to the oxidized state ( I 3 − ). 5. The photoexcited electron may also recombine directly with the oxidized dye (D + ) before injection. 6. D + + e − (CB)
→ D, recombination of the injected electrons with the oxidized dye at the interface between the dyes and TiO
2 . 7. I 3 − + e − (CB) or e − (FTO)
→ I − , recombination of the injected electrons with triiodide at the interface between TiO 2 or FTO and the electrolyte. The performance of a DSSC is predominantly based on four energy levels of the components: the excited state (approximately LUMO) and the ground state (HOMO) of the photosensitizer, the Fermi level of the TiO 2 electrode, which is located near the conduction band level, and the redox potential of the mediator (I − /I 3 − ) in the electrolyte [7, 29, 30]. The photocurrent obtained from a DSSC is determined by the energy difference between the HOMO and the LUMO of the photosensitizer (the gap between D + /D
and D + /D shown by “1” in Fig 38.1), analogous to the band gap, for example, for inorganic semiconductor materials. The smaller the HOMO–LUMO energy gap, the larger the photocurrent will be because of the utilization of the long-wavelength region in the solar spectrum. The energy gap between the LUMO level and the conduction band level of TiO 2 (shown by “2” in Fig. 38.1), E 1 , is important and the energy level of the LUMO must be sufficiently negative with respect to the conduction band of TiO 2 to inject electrons effectively. In addition, substantial electronic coupling between the LUMO and the conduction band of TiO 2 also leads to effective electron injection. The HOMO level of the complex must be sufficiently more positive than the redox potential of the I − /I 3 − redox mediator to accept electrons effectively ( E 2 , shown by “4” in Fig. 38.1). The energy gaps, E 1 and E 2 , must be larger than approximately 200 mV to provide an effective driving force for each of the electron-transfer reactions to take place with optimal efficiency [31]. 38.2 RUTHENIUM COMPLEXES FOR DSSC Ruthenium complexes [32] have received particular interest as photosensitizers in DSSC applications because of their favorable photoelectrochemical properties and high stability in the oxidized state, making practical applications feasible [5]. Among the ruthenium complexes, the polypyridyl complexes of ruthenium dyes are the most efficient [33]. They can be categorized as carboxylate polypyridyl ruthenium dyes, phosphonate ruthenium dyes, polynuclear bipyridyl ruthenium dyes, and so on [34]. Polypyridinic complexes of d 6 metal ions show intense metal-to-ligand charge transfer (MLCT) bands in the visible region and thus offer the potential to promote charge injection processes into the conduction bands of wide bandgap semiconductors, such as TiO 2 , SnO
2 , and ZnO [10]. The energies of the MLCT states can be altered systematically by modifying the anchoring ligands as well as by changing the ancillary ligands or their substituents. The absorption of incident light can be improved by manipulating the dye’s molecular structure to either increase the degree of absorption of photons in the functional wavelength range (as measured by the molar extinction coefficient, ε), or to extend the functional range—ideally, to within the NIR [35, 36]. The structure in Fig. 38.2 has been altered by replacing one or both of the COOH groups on at least one of the bipyridyl ligands with a range of more highly π-conjugated moieties [35]. The presence of the electron-withdrawing nature of the carboxylic groups, which lowers the energy of the π* orbital, can improve the photophysical and redox properties of metal complexes [37]. Figure 38.2 shows, the most well-known Ru complexes, that is, ruthenium polypyridyl complexes, for DSSCs such as N3, N719, and N749 (black dye) [11, 22, 38]. Ruthenium polypyridyl complexes are synthesized by the reaction of the polypyridyl ligand with ruthenium trichloride [10, 39]. The synthesis of polypyridyl ligands is well reported in the literature [40]. As an example, N3 has two bipyridine and two thiocyanato (NCS) ligands [35]; the latter of which, being loosely 506 ORGANOMETALLIC COMPOUNDS FOR DYE-SENSITIZED SOLAR CELLS (DSSC) COOH COOH
COOTBA COOH
COOTBA TBAOOC
COOTBA HOOC
COOH COOH
HOOC N N Ru N N N N N N N N C C S S N Ru N N N C C C S S S N Ru N N N C C S S (a) (b)
(c) Figure 38.2 Structures of some representative ruthenium-based complexes used as photosensitizers N3 (a), N719 (b), and black dyes (N749) (c), respectively. TBA, tetrabutylammonium cation. attached, account for its ability to absorb radiation up to 800 nm. Although the N3 dye provides high J sc (short-circuit current), it does not give a high V oc (open-circuit voltage) as seen in Table 38.1 [15]. The N719 dye has the same structure as the N3 dye but has TBA + (tetrabutylammonium) instead of H + at two carboxyl groups [17, 41]. The difference in V oc in these two dyes can be rationalized as being due to the difference in proton concentrations at the surfaces of TiO 2 films.
Since the N3 dye can provide up to four protons per dye, it can adsorb at the basic sites of the TiO 2 surface and shift the E cb (conduction-band-edge energy level) to positive [15]. As a result, the conversion efficiency of DSSC for these two dyes is different (Table 38.1). The N749 dye, which is called black dye, has achieved the maximum absorption up to 860 nm and showed performance similar to the N3 and N719 dyes [15, 41, 18, 42]. However, the absorption coefficient of N749 is lower than that of the N3 and N719 dyes. These low absorption coefficients require thicker TiO 2 electrodes to adsorb more dye molecules on TiO 2 . The increase in the thickness has disadvantages in terms of electron transport and the open-circuit voltage, that is, J sc and V oc may decrease. The V oc of DSSC using N749 is lower than that of N719, which cannot be explained by a proton effect. As a result, N749 has shown a lower efficiency than N719 [42]. The N3 and N719 dyes (Table 38.1) show the highest incident photon-to-current conversion efficiency (IPCE) as compared with other dyes. When the optical properties of the dyes are taking into consideration, there are two quantum efficiencies (QEs), that is, an external quantum efficiency (EQE) and an internal quantum efficiency (IQE) [43]. EQE includes the effect of optical losses by transmission and reflection, while IQE refers to the efficiency of the photons that are not reflected or transmitted out of the cell [43]. From the reflection and transmission of a solar cell, the EQE curve can be corrected to obtain the internal quantum efficiency curve [43]. IPCE is related to EQE and therefore IPCE depends on the absorption of light as well as the collection of charges. 38.3 NON-RUTHENIUM METAL COMPLEXES FOR DSSC Most of the work in DSSCs has focused on Ru(II) polypyridine complexes, mainly because of their intense charge transfer absorption across the whole visible range and the ease of tunability of their redox properties. However, research has also been extended to other metal complexes such as Fe(II), Re(I), Os(II), Cu(I), Pt(II), and Ir(II) [10]. 38.3.1 Complexes of Osmium Complexes of osmium, platinum, rhenium, copper, iron, and iridium able to be used as sensitizers have been reported [33, 34]. The osmium complex (Fig. 38.3a) [26, 27] was synthesized and characterized and it was found that its IPCE values were lower than those of the Ru complexes [26]. Osmium complexes (Fig. 38.2a) used as sensitizers were found to be 50% less efficient than Ru complexes. However, osmium complexes have greater photochemical stability compared to the black dye [27, 34]. The osmium complex in CH 3 OH showed a reversible Os II → Os
III oxidation process that extended the spectral response of TiO 2 photoanodes [26, 27, 34]. 38.3.2 Complexes of Platinum Square-planar platinum(II)-based dyes, see Fig. 38.3b [28], efficiently sensitize nanocrystalline TiO 2 solar cells over a wide visible range, generating a short-circuit photocurrent of 6.14 mA/cm 2 and an open-circuit potential of 600 mV with a solar energy conversion efficiency of approximately 2.6% under simulated AM 1.5 solar irradiation [28]. STRUCTURE OF METAL COMPLEX SENSITIZERS 507 COOH
(a) (c)
(d) (b)
COOH ROOC
ROOC N N N N Cu COOH COOH
COOR COOR
N + (n-Bu) 4 HOOC
N N N N N N N N N S S Pt C C C CO Cl Re OC OC S Os Figure 38.3 Complexes of osmium (a), platinum (b), rhenium (c), and copper (d). 38.3.3 Complexes of Rhenium A series of chlorotricarbonyl rhenium(I) complexes based on benzathiazole derivatives have been reported [34]. One of the chlorotricarbonyl rhenium(I) complexes, shown in Fig. 38.3c, exhibits a solar energy efficiency of around 1.43–1.76% [44]. Compared to other rhenium(I) 2,2 -bipyridine complexes, these were found to have a redshifted absorption because the heterocyclic ligands have lower π-to-π
* energy levels [44]. 38.3.4 Complexes of Copper Copper(I) complexes, based on 6,6 -disubstituted-2,2 -bipyridines, have been reported to be effective sensitizers for TiO 2 [18]. These dyes showed surprisingly high IPCE for DSSCs (above 50%) [18]. The current–voltage characteristics of dyes of copper(I) complexes, shown in Fig. 38.3d [18], were compared with that of N719 and were found to have a solar conversion efficiency of 2.3% [18]. 38.3.5 Complexes of Iridium A novel type of efficient iridium(III) sensitizer with carboxyl pyridine ligands was synthesized, yielding a maximum IPCE of 66% and a 2.16% power conversion efficiency under simulated AM 1.5 sunlight [45]. Cyclometalated Ir(III) complexes have two potential advantages: first, their high stability conferred by the chelate ring systems of cyclometalated Ir(III) complexes; second, because the excited-state lifetime of cyclometalated Ir(III) complex is longer than that of N3, a higher overall solar energy conversion efficiency may be anticipated [45]. Other metal complexes such as iron have been researched. Iron(II) ligands, for example, have shown higher stabilities toward photochemical degradation with solar energy efficiencies equal to 0.29% [18, 19]. 38.4 STRUCTURE OF METAL COMPLEX SENSITIZERS The proven, and thus preferred, general structure for sensitizers is ML 2 (X)
2 , where M can be Ru or Os, L is 2,2 -bipyridyl- 4,4 -dicarboxylic acid, and X represents a halide, cyanide, thiocyanate, acetyl acetonate, thiocarbamate, or water subsistent group [29]. The structures of metal complexes used as sensitizers can also be mononuclear metal complexes (Figs. 38.2, 38.3, and 38.4a) [6, 41, 18], binuclear metal complexes [Ru–Ru (Fig. 38.4b) [30], and Ru–Os (Fig. 38.4c)] complexes [30]. Polynuclear complexes have been employed in order to increase absorption coefficients. However, these bulky sensitizers require more space on the TiO 2 surface and penetrate less easily in the small cavities of the nanocrystalline TiO 2 than the
mononuclear complexes [34]. Hence, for polynuclear complexes, the increased absorption coefficients in solution do not necessarily lead to enhanced light absorption on the TiO 2 electrode because of the reduced surface concentration of the bulkier sensitizer molecules on the nanoporous TiO 2 . 508 ORGANOMETALLIC COMPOUNDS FOR DYE-SENSITIZED SOLAR CELLS (DSSC) HOOC O
(b) (c)
O O O N N O O O O O O O O N N N N HO HO HO HO OH OH N N N N N N N N N N N N N N Os N N N N N N N N Ru Ru Ru HO HO N N N Zn C 8 H 17 C 8 H 17 C 8 H 17 C 8 H 17 C 6 H 13 C 6 H 13 Download 11.05 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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